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> , \v’«*. •. 

THE UNIVERSITY OP CHICAGO 

: ' 

, >>> : ^ 


AH EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OP THE CHARACTERISTICS OF 
HANDWRITING 1I0VEM>HTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 
THE DURATION AND SPEED OP SUCH MOTOSENTS. 


A DISSERTATION 
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 
OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OP ARTS AHD LITERATURE 
IH CAHDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 
DOCTOR OP PHILO30PHY 

DEPARTMENT OP EDUCATION 

BY 

PAUL VINING 7/E ST 

M 



< : ■ - ’ A 7 D • ! > ' •' • < 1 ‘ ' i - 

* v V A 

V' 



CHICAGO....ILLIH0I3 
DECEMBER.1922 















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£64908 

Table of Contouts 

Part One: Introduction 

1* The Problem and Plan of Attack. 

Bm Summary of Previous Invest!gatione. 

a. Rhythm. 

Definition of Rhythm 

The Origin of Rhythm 

Ability to Follow an Imposed Rhythm 

The Effect of the Imposition of Rhythm 

Application of Imposed Rhythm to Handwriting. 

b. Accuracy of Movement. 

c. Organisation. 

d. Summary of Principles* 

Part Two; An Experimental Study of Rhythm in Finger and Arm 
Movements. 

1. Apparatus and Method. 

2. Results. 

a. Description of Technique. 

b. Reliability of Technique. 

o. Analysis of Actual Temporal Measures. 

Effect of the Imposition of Rhythm 
Comparison of Finger and Arm Movement 
Comparison of Child and Mult Croups. 

A. Analysis of Derived Measures of Variability. 

Relation of Periods of Rest and Stroke. 

Comparison of Finger and Arm Movements. 

Comparison of Results with Spontaneous ana Imposed Rhythm 



■HU/, M ' 

* 2 

. 

' 

• ;,|#ru &. M * 




Comparison of Groups as to Bang© of Variation 

e. Proportion of Time Spent at Host 

f. Ability to Follow Rhythmic Control 

g. Miscellaneous Correlations, 

3* Discussion and Conclusions including Summary, 

Bart Three: A Hicrometric Analysis of the Handwriting Movement, 

1, Previous Methods of studying Inner Speed Relations, 

2, Description of Apparatus and Method of Operation, 

a. Recording Apparatus and Technique of Recording, 

b* Measuring Apparatus and Technique of Analysing Records. 

3* Results, 

a* Organization of Movement 

b. Rhythm 

Natural Temporal Bhytb®, in repetitive and written forms. 
The Following of an Imposed Rhythm. 

c. Speed of Movement 

Frequency of Speed Changes. 

Relation of Speed to Time Spent on Stroke. 

Relation of Speed to length of Stroke. 

Relation of Speed to Curvature of stroke, in simple 
repetitive exercises and In writing. 

d. Time Economy In Writing 

e. Habituation 

4, General Conclusion and Summary 

Recommendations for the Teaching of Penmanship 
Diagnosis as an Aid in Penmanship Instruction 

i. - • 


Appendix. 






















'■ r • • ■ • ; . •••• 'S* • 





The author acknowledges his debt to those who 
kindly acted as subjects for the experiments! 
work, and primarily to Dr* F*H*freeman both for 
the basic studies which he has made and for his 
direct counsel. funds provided by the Gener¬ 
al Education Board aided greatly in the providing 
of apparatus and also clerical assistance in the 
transfer end. graphing of records. 

The experimental work was carried on In the 
laboratory of the department of Experimental 
Education of the University of Chicago during the 
years 1917-18* The privilege of using this lab¬ 
oratory with its excellent ©fuipment is greatly 
appreciated* 



paiei? om: 


Presentation of the Problem ana the Plan 
of Procedure also a Historical Summary 
of Previous Contributions. 





The Problem and Plan of Procedure 


The scientific study of handwriting in its earlier stages 
warn of necessity largely concerned with isolated investigations 
of the handwriting process with a view to noting the specific 
characteristics prevalent and obvious in ordinary writing and 
in associated movements* In this way many discoveries were 
made which have proved very significant In the further study 
of handwriting and in the outlining of principles of method* 
Among such fruitful lines of Investigation may he mentioned 
the various studies of inner speed relations which proved 
conclusively that, in normal writing, the speed of the pen 
point within the written line constantly varies, with the 
increase of speed at the beginning or aid of strokes* The 
slant of movement was investigated and the medium forward 
slant found most favorable to economy* The written form, the 
type of instrument, the writing position, the pressure of the 
fingers upon the penholder and the penpoint upon the page, 
etc*, have in the same way received attention* 

The task which is facing the student in the field of 
handwriting at the present time is that of investigating more 
directly the problems connected with methods of teaching looking 
toward the most effective and economic results* To this end 
there must be systematic analysis and classification of the 
factors which influence the handwriting process and some 
adequate Indication of the aaS 3 *#* and the extent of their 
influence* This can be done only through intensive diagnosis 
of handwriting processes and products with a view to locating 
the blame definitely for characteristic defects, taking into 







































* 


















The Problem said Plan of frocedure 


The scientific study of handwriting in its earlier stages 
was of necessity largely concerned with Isolated investigations 
of the h&ndwrit ing process with a view to noting the specific 
characteristics prevalent and obvious in ordinary writing and 
in associated movements* In this way many discoveries were 
made which have proved very significant in the further study 
of handwriting and in the outlining of principles of method* 
Among such fruitful lines of investigation may be mentioned 
the various studies of inner speed relations which proved 
conclusively that, in norms! writing, the speed of the pen 
point within the written line constantly varies, with the 
increase of speed at the beginning or end of strokes. The 
slant ef movement was investigated and the medium forward 
slant found most favorable to economy* The written form, the 
type of instrument, the writing position, the pressure of the 
fingers upon the penholder and the panpoint upon the page, 
eta*, have in the erne way received attention* 

The task which is facing the student in the field of 
handwriting at the present time is that of investigating more 
directly the problems connected with methods of teaching looking 
toward the most effective and economic results* To this end 
there must be systematic analysis and classification of the 
factors which influence the handwriting process and some 
adequate indication of the ma^sr and the extent of their 
influence* This can be done only through intensive diagnosis 
of handwriting processes and products with a view to locating 
the blame definitely for characteristic defects, taking into 









£ 


consideration, of course, variations do© to individual 
difference* Among such defects my fee noted; excessive or 
insufficient length of strokes, difficulty in rounding curves 
at the end of strokes, lack of smooth even progression within 
the stroke, waste of time, etc* In the words of F* 1U Freeman 
(&i mi 

It will still be necessary before we have solved all 
the problems which are involved in the teaching of 
handwriting, to carry on investigations which shall 
consist of an analysis of the form of writing, and 
of the movement and mental processes fey which it 
is produced* 

The ultimate aim will not have been achieved until methods of 
correcting faults, and especially instructing so as to avoid 
these faults, have been discovered and applied* 

Most of the factors essential to good penmanship have 
already been isolated and dealt with, and many recommendations 

of good method have resulted, with altogether too small an 

(1) 

effect on general practise as yet. 

Many recossaendatlone, both general end specific, are made 
which are based on no scientific foundation, but are on the 
contrary merely matters of opinion* Among such may be noted 
the use of the metronome or phonograph as a guide to rhythmic 
movement in all types of writing and at all ages, the exclusive 

(1J for such a summary list of suggestive principles the reader 
should examine if *IU Freeman, Principles of Method in teaching 
Writing as Derived from scientific Investigation* 18th Year¬ 
book of the national society for the Study of education Pt*£, 
pp*ll-E5* In this article not merely the principle is given, 
but also the experimental or other proof on which it is based 
Is summarised and located* 





. 









3 


use of the arm movement, etc. These most he subjected to 
critical investigation and he found valid before being gener¬ 
ally adopted# 

This investigation i© primarily concerned with an inten¬ 
sive study of certain elements of penmanship which are deemed 
fundamental and which are a subject of dispute or of uncertain¬ 
ty at the present time. 

In Part XX of this investigation, a definite experiment is 
described which i© concerned chiefly with the function of 
rhythm, both spontaneous and imposed, in handwriting movements. 
A comparison Is made between good and poor adult writers, and 
also between child and adult writers, and some facts are 
pointed out regarding the relations of finger and arm movement. 

The following topics are considered in Part XXX, among 
others: 

1# The place and value of rhythmic control in handwriting. 

This involves the distinction between spontaneous and imposed 
rhythm, and a study of the correlation between them and certain 
elements in the writing product and process, such as am end 
finger movement, 

2. The analysis of organisation and coordination of speed of 
movement with a view to discovering characteristic differences 
between good and poor writers, and also between child and 
adult writers# 

3# Temporal economy in writing or the saving of time in the 
construction of written forms, or in the passage between these 
forme, especially as related to factors of quality. 

4. The degree to which habituation may obtain in the behavior 






4 


°£ Individuals, and it© significance in relation to quality 
of penmanship. 

The principles derived from thi© part of the investigation 
verify the value of the method used. A distinctive contribu¬ 
tion to method is therein attempted with the purpose of secur¬ 
ing more accurately detailed analysis of the temporal charac¬ 
teristics than has before been possible, typical cases are 
presented and suggestive find 

possibilities of the method, and specific recommendations are 
included with regard to the continuation of the lines of 
investigation here begun. 

in a sense handwriting may be considered as especially 
susceptible to objective measurement. f fhe speed of writing 
can be readily reckoned in letter© per minute, and, with the 
recent development of penmanship scales, a sample of writing 
cun be graded for quality with comparative exactness. But 
though these measurements are valuable indeed to the teacher 
or supervisor, the scientific investigator has long realised 
the need of supplement tng them with a more detailed knowledge 
of the inner speed conditions of the written form* 

That there is a clear and direct relationship betneea the 

speed of movement within the stroke and the form of the stroke 

or of contiguous strokes has been so clearly demonstrated by 

( 1 ) 

Freeman, both in his earlier and later investigations, that 
It cannot be doubted. There yet remains to be discovered 
in detail just what these changes are, and in what way they 
are definitely related under various conditions. For example, 

(1) See pm 7& Seference 2; p.18 ff. 





& 


exactly what effect does the length of a strode or the curva¬ 
ture of a stroke have upon the speed with which it is produced? 
Bees the distribution of speed within the stroke relate itself 
to certain characteristic performance? 

All diagnostic study of the writing itself incidental to 
this investigation is based on remarkably exact knowledge of 
the changes in the rate of movement throughout the entire line 
of writing and the comparison of these changes with variations 
of length, direction and time in the corresponding parts of the 
product, as well as with the type of product as a whole. 

The plan hero followed involves two separate lines of 
experiment: (!) A study of the natural rhythm in arm and 
finger movement at different ages, and the effect of the impo¬ 
sition of rhythm on movement; and it) The development and 
application of a detailed method adapted to the analysis of 
the handwriting movement of good and poor adult writers, also 
of child writers* By this method a study is made of natural 
rhythm in simple and repetitive forms, as well ae in the 
construct ion of more complex written forms, and again the 
effect of the rhythmic guide is noted* In addition, the 
organisation of speed and movement within the stroke is 
considered, as well as factors in time economy and habituation* 










































P **£» «*V* . 

































Summary of Previous Investigations 


RHYTHM 

The study of rhythm in relation to behavior occupied quite 
a large place in the psychological investigations of the period, 
1890 to 1906, the movements of the hand, finger, and arm being 
studied,ae well as the general bodily functions* 

Following this period of purely psychological interest was 
one in whioh the subject of rhythm received very little atten¬ 
tion* In recent years, however, there has developed renewed 
interest in rhythm as applied to certain forms of behavior, 
especially with the practical view to discovering and attain¬ 
ing the most efficient methods and processes* 

It is manifest that many of the early investigations have 
contributed results which are of general value so as to apply 
to many specialised activities* It is to be ejected,however, 
that each of these special activities must receive special 
investigation on it© own account if we are to discover the 
exact relationship which it bears to rhythmic movement. Fact© 
which are accumulated with respect to the action of certain 
muscles or groups of muscles will not necessarily apply to 
the action of other muscle combinations at worn upon a 
different product or under different conditions* 

definition: 

There has come about a modification in the meaning of the 
term. Rhythm, itself, which tends to confuse the issues 
involved* In practically all earlier reports rhythm was 
considered as a matter of simple temporal regularity, involv- 












lug an equality of successive period© of tine* usually marked 
by some sort of pulsation or beat, or the ability to adapt 
one*© functioning to each time periods either consciously 
or unconsciously* 

Another view of rhythm relates to rhythm of a more complex 
type well expressed by lavignao, as noted by Goedh&rt (7*) 
"Rhythm is nothin more than division of time into equal or 
unequal, but -always proportional fractions* flme is the 
absolute equality in duration of all notes of the same value# 
We can play in time while giving the rhythm in an incomplete 
manner; we cannot produce correct rhythm without playing in 
time*" Christian (7:860) likewise states that "Rhythm is the 
regulated recurring motion made clear in music by the periodi¬ 
cal recurrence of accent." Bolton (£:2$7J makes the matter 
a little clearer in his statement, "fk© conception of a rhythm 
demands a perfectly regular sequence of impressions. ***** 
A member of the sequence may contain one or more simple im¬ 
pressions* If there are & number of impressions, they may 
stand in any order of arrangement, or even in a state of 
confusion, but each member of the sequence must be exactly 
the same in the arrangement of it© elements*" A variation 
of this type of interpretation has to do with the larger 
daily or even annual fluctuations, but that need not here 
concern us* 

A more recent view has recognise^ the rhythmic quality of 
free flowing movement such as the movement of a stream or of 
an aesthetic dancer, with no definite regard to the temporal 
succession, but without clearly designating by what right 




8 


such movement may he called rhythmical* 

^he Origin of Bhythm: 

There Is general recognition among authorities of the 
importance of physiological factors as an explanation of the 
rhythmic impulse* There are, however, various interpretations 
as to what these factors may be. borne have correlated natural 
rhythm with fluctuations of attention and expectation without 
tracing these to their source* Many have recognised icinaee- 
thesis as essential ty rhythmic reproduction; ©o liuckmicfc 
{ 13: 338 ), using an introspective method, states that what¬ 
ever material was presented for rhythraitissation, *kinaee thesis 
was essential for the establishment of a rhythmical perception*” 
When this perception \me once established it could n be 
consciously carried, in the absence of any sort of kin&esthesis, 
by auditory or visual processes** This experimenter does not, 
however, declare viiat was included in the definition of the 
term "kinaeethesis* as he used it, or what it was that the 
subject felt in his individual accomodation to the rhythm* 

iiaoh ( 16: 413-4 } made the most important early contribu¬ 
tion to a motor explanation of rhythm in 1863, and was followed 
by a long line of experimenters who favored this explanation. 
Wundt {16: 414), though favoring the motor factor, never 
placed great emphasis upon it, but Wemmam (16; 416) gave 
greater place to this explanation, though considering it as 
secondary and derived. Bolton ( B; 354-6 ) placed great 
emphasis on the motor aspect of rhythm, especially "motor 
accompaniment”, and even inclines to the motor interpretation. 






■ 











9 


He declares that "most subjects felt therss elves Impelled by 
an Irresistible force to make muscular movements of some 
sort accompanying the rhythms? If the movements of one 
muscle were restrained they were likely to appear somewhere 
else# Such Inhibition also interfered with keeping account 
of the rhythm. He farther asserts that the muscular move* 
meats and associations wore the conditions, not merely the 
results, of the rhythmical grouping* 

Since the time of Bolton (i894) the general acceptance of 
the motor explanation has advanced rapidly* Miner ( S: £0 ) 
favors the theory of the "muscle wave" ae the basis for 
rhythmic grouping* He found that, while movements made by 
involuntary muscle© coincidental with a rhythmic stimulus 
would be somewhat modified and adapted so as to cover a 
group of stimuli* and while the muscle wave would vary 
slightly at different times in the cam© individual, the 
general tendency was for the wave to be quite & table* 

Stevens ( 17: go ), finding that the vasa-motor wave 
coincides, in at least of the eases # with the fluctua¬ 
tions in judgment of a tiro interval, states, "There is no 
special Time Sense in consciousness; but our judgment of 
time is mediate, depending upon organic processes, of which 
the changes in blood volume is one of the more important," 

The best and most frequent coincidences of judgment and of 
vaso-motor wave me found to accur in fluctuations ranging 
from *4 seconds to 2 seconds apart* 

Siehols ( 11: 5E9 ) early stated that the "later 
investigators look to physiological processes for explanation 

















'V 

. 























■ 




xo 


of time*judgments, and particularly to rhythmic habits of 
nerve centers,” fhose who have still later studied the. 
problem have given clearer definition of these habits, and 
have located their source more exactly as intimately bound 
up with the circulatory and respiratory functioning of the 
body. 

The Ability to follow an Imposed rhythm; 

In line with the above findings practically all experi¬ 
menters agree that there is generally a "more favorable rate” 
of rhythm for each individual to follow, or at least a rang© 
or rates within which he is able to follow a rhythmic beat 
cams rehen®ively, 

M&cDougall ( 8: 9? } states that a particular auditory 
series cannot be grasped at all if their succession falls 
below a certain rate, for beyond this limit the human con- 
seiouenese has no capacity for rhythmical integrations of 
its impressions, Then their succession rises above a certain 
other superior limit the numerical apprehension of the series 
of impressions again become© confused,” He found the total 
range of rates which could be successfully followed was from 
• 1 seconds to £ seconds with the most favorable rate for any 
Individual one that me slightly more rapid than that 
adopted in free rhythmical tapping. He explains this fact 
by t e presence of a greater inertia in the latter activity* 
lie believes the upper and lower limits m above noted are 
fixed by the physiological laws which condition motor dis¬ 
charges and the limits placed on the discrimination of 
refined experiences of strain. 







11 


Srnires { 15: 575 ) similarly found that if the rat© ©as 
too rapid there was no perception of rhythm. Bolton had ex¬ 
plained this fact by stating the rate was too rapid to find 
muscular expression, but Squires asserts ( p 577 ) that it is 
much more probably that it is because the rate exceeds the 
upper limit of the cortical rhythm* This investigator noted 
the upper and lower limits that could be well followed as 1 
second and *1 of a second respectively, with the most favor¬ 
able rate between *3 seconds and *6 seconds, corresponding 
to the bodily rhythms* 

Uichols ( 11; iv- 529 ), in simsmarising the findings of 
a long line of investigators state® that nearly all, under 
all conditions, found "a particular length of interval more 
easily and accurately to be Judged than any other”, but that 
the "indifference point, or interval of best Judgment is very 
variable for different individuals and for different times 
and conditions*" The sore author, while recognising (ll:iv- 
84 ) the fact that there is an individual norm for each 
person to which he tends to revert, found that practice 
"seemed to preserve its effect with nearly, if not entirely, 
its full force" for a period of about two minutes* 

Tallin ( 18: 210-11 ) also noted the great individual 
differences in the choice of a preferred tiirs, ranging from 
•305 seconds to 1*37 seconds with on average of *519 seconds* 
He found it possible to classify his subject© into alow, 
medium, fast and rapid groups. 

Many have noted the constant error incident to the 
attempt to follow an imposed rhythm. Dunlap ( 4: 411 ) 







found a tendency to drift away fro® the rhythm, then bach, 
with the subjects either strongly positive or negative, 

Klchols { 11: 5B9 ) presents a principle in explanation of 
this latter characteristic: i.e., in single norma and 
reproductions the constant error is minus for intervale 
longer and plus for intervals shorter than the indifference 
point, while in multiple norms the reverse is true. In 
other words, in the simple beat the subject tends to lag 
behind the imposed rhythm when it is beating faster than 
his normal response, while, when the stimulus is a compounded 
rhythm he will tend to push ahead of the more rapid beat and 
lag behind the slow beat. Biis authority does not agree that 
the judgment of the ties© of movement follows Cher's law, or 
is the result of a fixed periodicity. 

That the complexity of the rhythm has cmch to do with 
the success or failure of any attempt to follow it is almost 
axiomatic. ^11 butt states { 1: 340 ), “the simpler and 
ruder the musical sense, the more brief .... must be the 
recurrent rhythms the more relieved and elaborated rhythms 

of Bach and Beethoven need a more sustained attention and 
more cultivated apprehension, while the rhythms of dagner 
are so postponed In their resolutions, and so broken in their 
variety, that perhaps few even of the good musicians oan 
follow them with any consciousness of muscular measure or 
even of 'form*** 

Soars { 14: 43*4 ) has noted that the majority of child 
subjects got all the rhythms imposed. He determined that 


. 






13 


age was an important factor in rhythmic adaptation, the 
increase in ability to follow or express rhythm by tapping 
being quite rapid up to the ago of 9 or 10* After this age 
the progress was slower up to the age of 15 or 15, when there 
was possibly a falling away in skill* 

Effect of the Imposition of Bhytto: 

Scripture ( 9: 93 ) has stated the principle that, when 
natural rhythm© and periods of work are made to coincide, 
one gets the most action with the least fatigue* Fere ( Ibid } 
noted that fatigue was very rapid following increase of work 
in conjunction with certain rhythms* Miner { 9s 95, 10£«3 ) 
found that slow workers were aided by a rhythmic beat which 
was fast enough to stimulate them, while fast workers were 
hindered* Bras m see that the Imposed beat would be effec¬ 
tive in negativing the effects of distraction in some cases, 
but would produce distraction in other cases* Xfiehols is 
convinced C 11: iv- 79 } that a more or less permanent cen¬ 
tral habit is Induced during practise with a certain rhythm, 
as s result of his experimentation with beats longer and 
shorter than the subject’s normal rate through brief and 
extended practise periods* 

Handwriting as a Form of Hhythmie Behavior: 

although there has been a great increase in the applica¬ 
tion of the principles of rhythm to handwriting, and there 
have been widespread recommend at ions regarding its use as an 
imposed guide, very few workers have approached the main or 





. 


■ 





14 


related problems fro© a scientific point of view* it is not 
Set known to what extent the use of an imposed rhythm is an 
aid or what should be the strict limitations placed upon it 
as to age adaptation, rate of beat, complexity of rhythm, 
etc*, or with what type of movements it may best be associated* 
Before this can be fully accompli shed we must know to what 
degree rhythm is characteristic of best performance* 

Freeman { 16 ) and Butt ( 12 } have been the principal 
investigators of the value and use of rhythm in relation to 
handwriting, and are in general agreement in their results* 
Butt ( 12: 136-6 ) arbitrarily measures the degree of rhythm 
"by weighing three considerations, namely, the largest number 
of strokes made in the sane length of time, the number of 
groups into Which the duration of the strokes fell, called 
the time groups, and the range of the time groups.*..*** 5?he 
total grade for rhythm was found by multiplying together the 
respective grades for the three items Just given*' Freeman 
( 6s 11 } considers rhythm as*an approach to equality in the 
time taken to write successive strokes"* labile this defini¬ 
tion is a purely arbitrary one as applied to handwriting, it 
is in harmony with the simpler comprehension of the term a© 
generally used* 

Both of these investigators find rhythm strongly corre¬ 
lated with age, with ability to use and follow rhythm quit© 
marked at the age of from 9 to 12. Freeman states ( p*12S ) 
that the duration of the strokes becomes more uniform as the 
child grows older, and that it is more uniform in rapid than 















15 


In slow writing* Butt, however, asserts ( p* 443 } that the 
speed of writing cannot b© forced ahead of the natural develop¬ 
ment of rhythm without detriment to the form, neither of the 
authorities find rhythm correlated with accuracy of form in 
such a degree as to indue© a belief that they are in any sense 
interdependent* In fact it was found that a tendency to 
follow a rhythmic pace would tend to cause a slurring over of 
important elements in written forms* Nutt did not find that 
the rhythmic power was aided or interfered with appreciably 
by emphasis on the use of an: movement. Freeman refers to 
K.JL*Smith in recommending rhythmical drills for the develop¬ 
ment of coordination, care being taken that the rate chosen 
is not beyond the capacity of the pupil, and his stag© of 
ruality development. Ho specifications are made, however, 
a© to what these drills should consist of, or as to their 
age placement. 

ixCGURsCY GF EOmm* 

Errors of movement to which most of the defects in writ¬ 
ing may be attributed are classified in two groups; those due 
to faulty perception, and those due to motor defect, or the 
inability of the muscle to perform the act intended* Fuller¬ 
ton and Cat tell ( 19: 12-14 ) not only analysed error of 
movement in this way, but weighed the error as due to these 
two causes, and came to the conclusion that the error of 
perception was considerably larger than that of motion proper* 
In other words, after a clear image was gotten of what was 








16 


to be done the tendency of the muscle was to perform with 
little variation the task thus clearly outlined. It is 
probable that too little attention has been given in the 
way of experimentation to the perceptual factor in handwriting* 

Eunsterberg ( 19: 15 ) however, notes a source of error 
which intervenes between perception and performance* "emotions 
can be sources of inaccuracy in our movement .*•* it is not 
improbable that many of the unaccountable variations in ac¬ 
curacy which often appear are the result of fleeting emotions* 11 
The line of attack here suggested has never been thoroughly 
or satisfactorily investigated, largely because of the 
difficulties connected with any attempt to isolate and wei^i 
the concomitant feelings, 

Bryan ( 3: 189-196 } studied the development of children 
of the ages 6 to 16 in rapid and accurate movement, The 
growth in accuracy was most evident, comparatively in the 
5 ears 6 to 8, The maximum rapidity he found remarkably con¬ 
stant in the same individual when using the same group of 
muscles, but the accuracy of movement was subject to much 
wider variations, This investigation does not, however, 
yield unqualified results, es the speed of movement was not 
controlled or recorded in those eases where accuracy was 
Judged and the relationship was not clearly established, 

( 19: 16). Bryan ( 3: 199 ) suggests that a critical test of 
voluntary control would probably bo the maximum rate of 
voluntary rhythmically repeated movement* 

iioodworth { 19 : 39-44 ) has shown that the duration of 








17 


the Interval of rest preceding a stroke has much to do with 
the accuracy of the stroke itoelf* In general he conclude© 
that "the accuracy diminishes as the interval is prolonged" 

( p*59 ) and that the short interval is conducive to a 
greater degree than the long interval *to an accurate adjust¬ 
ment of the initial impulse", { p.4£ ) hence to a more 
effective current control within the stroke* ilunsterfeerg’s 
findings seem to disagree with this, but he did not deal 
with intervals of leas than £ seconds duration* ( p*43 ) 
Woodworth is of the opinion that there is a point of maxim© 
accuracy reached when the interval is shortened to at least 
*3 or *5 of a second or more* He further assumes { p«44 ) 
that there must be a turning point somewhere, and that the 
accuracy cannot continue to Increase down to the interval 
sere* However he furnishes no evidence* 

The uniformity which already appears in automatic move¬ 
ments, and which is a great aid to accuracy, he believes is 
favored and increased by high ©peed unless the rat© is 
carried to such a degree as to interfere with the current 
control* The momentum within the stroke which is most 
favorable to uniformity of product he believes is assisted 
by easy, rhythmic movement as well as a short interval pre¬ 
ceding the stroke* 

Other inference© which Woodworth presents that are of 
significance to our discussion are: ( 19: 4£ ) 

1* "Any sort of movement in which the current control is so 
imperfect that the accuracy depend© mostly on the initial 
adjustment will be expected rather to gain than to lose 


. 

C, a m t « > 

P . 

♦ • . 11 

• • 

. 

. - 

. 



18 


from hastening the beat of the metronome (which is being 
followed)* The resulting increase of speed would then do 
no harm, while the decrease in interval would do good*'* 

2m Any movement whose "initial adjustment has to act in oppo¬ 
sition to the momentum of uniformity” or, in other words, 
in which the current control is primary while the interval 
of rest preceding is incidental, will lose accuracy very 
rapidly as the beat is hastened* 
according to this diagnosis, therefore, the us© of the metro¬ 
nome or other rhythmic stimulus must be adapted to the peculiar 
nature of the movement, and by inference, to the typical move¬ 
ment habits of the subject, hence i© not always applicable to 
any movement by any individual under any conditions* 

Authorities are generally agreed that the increase of 
speed tends to increase the length of stroke, while decrease 
of speed will shorten the stroke* *,oodworth notes ( 19: 38 ) 
that while changes of speed do not influence the average error 
when the eyes are closed, faster movements are, almost without 
exception, too long, the slower too short* 

Freeman shows ( 6: 5 ) that strokes widely differing lr 
length nay be made in the same, or nearly the same, length of 
time, and states that this is a manifestation of the disposi¬ 
tion to follow a rhythmic impulse in handwriting movements* 
There my be, therefore, an inverse accomodation of speed to 
length of stroke, or vio© versa, in order to maintain a parti¬ 
cular rhythm* Freeman also points out ( Ibid ) that the com¬ 
plexity of the stroke itself, as well as the strokes that 
precede and follow it, affect the duration of the stroke 




■ 




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19 


and the ©peed with which it is made In its different parte, 
therefore moot serve to modify the rhythm!e character of the 
motion* 

Brocas agrees ( 3: 150 } with Freeman in noting that the 
extent of the movement has tssll influence on its duration* 

The medium sized strokes being executed ©are cuickly than long 
or short ones* One should keep in Bind, however, that this 
refers to straight strokes* loeb ( 19: 10 } the prime basis 
for Judgments of the extent of movement is the duration of 
the movement, and while this statement is not rulte in accord 
with that of Fullerton and Gat tell who say ( 19: 10 ) that the 
duration of the movement is wmh less accurately Judged then 
the extent, the two are not in opposition* In case the former 
statement were correct it is evident that the introduction of 
regular rhythmic h*bite of movement would tend to Increase the 
evenness of the length of strokes* this would be true, however| 
only when the strokes were repetitive, with a certain rhythm 
and the various lengths of stroke associated without exception 
to a particular rate of rhythm* 

Another factor of inaccuracy is attention* Regularly, 
when special attention is given to the making of a stroke both 
the length of the stroke and the speed with which it is made 
are decreased, 

mQ&inuTim 

By this term is meant, either the relationship between 
the various successive strokes, or the portions of the same 




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stroke both as to speed and length as well as form. It is 
generally considered in connection with the term, "coordination”, 
a sample of writing which gives evidence of a free flowing 
movement in its construction is Broken of as showing good 
coordination without taking into consideration the perfection 
of form according to any recognised standard of penmanship, 
while lines which are irregular, showing abrupt change© in 
direction, or wavering and unsteadiness of progression are 
termed uncoordinated even though the writing itself be mite 
legible and well formed. But two sample© of .writing may be 
equally coordinated in these respects, and yet show entirely 
different types of organ!sation. One may divide the different 
strokes into separate unite of movement while another ray 
execute the writing more nearly as one continuous movement with 
the changes in speed not so noticeable from stroke to stroke. 

So one has investigated this field so throughly a© Free¬ 
man ( 6: 2 ) and he may be referred to at length. He notes 
that good and poor writers differ greatly in the way they or¬ 
ganise their writing as to "unites of movement 1 *, the good 
writer generally making a more definite differentlation, which 
means merely that he does not tend to slur over any of the 
unit strokes involved, but, on the contrary, tend© to give to 
each its full emphasis. It may at first appear difficult to 
reconcile this statement with another staterent of the same 
authority { p* 11 ); *it may b© taken as well established that 
the child*© writing movement is divided more narkedly into s 
series of separate or distinct movements than is the writing of 
the older person”, and especially so since the child is gener- 


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ally a poor writer* Judged according to best adult standards* 

The explanation lie© in the fact that the child has not yet 

\ 

learned to round hi© curves evenly and tends to treat his 
writing as a group of successive straight line strokes* The 
young child also writes with stuck bettor form relative to his 
total skill than does the older person* The facility which is 
later gained in curved movement© may be a hindrance to the 
attainment of ruality if carried to such an extent as to fail 
to recognise the individual oval or straight line characteris¬ 
tics of the respective strokes* The unit recognition of the 
good adult writer is rul to different is character from that of 
the child* since it evidences a clear connection between 
successive j&ove&eats as well as a definite regular progression 
within each unit* 

Freeman states quite clearly* and gives evidence to show* 
( 5: 91-5 ) that the good writer adjusts his changes in speed 
to the character of the form which he wishes to produce* and 
also notes In this case a "certain regularity and smoothness 
of movement* which is represented* for one thing* by a simi¬ 
larity in speed in the strokes which are similar in character* 
and by a lack of suddenness and abruptness in the transition 
from slow to rapid movement** 

SUBM&EY OF ■lUirOlKLKg ?£-:glEi3TC TO THIS STUDY: 

1* In ©peaking of rhythm in handwriting one should distinguish 
carefully between the various types of rhythm* and define 
his usage clearly in tern)© of simple temporal succession* 
recurrence of accent with broken time, or as free flowing 



. ' * 

. 


movement* 

£• The natural rate of temporal rhythm for sn individual is 
determined by deep-seated physiological tendencies, and 
this tends to remain constant* 

3* There ie a more favorable rate of rhythm which each individ»* 
al can best follow, and individuals differ greatly in the 
rates which they most readily follow* 

4* There is some evidence to ©how that a "foreign” rate of 
rhythm may be acruired, by practise with it, but there is 
no evidence to show d ether this acruisition might be 
permanent, or to what extent practise must be carried to 
males it permanent* 

&m An imposed beat, which is faster or slower than the natural 
rhythm of the one who is attempting to follow It, is con¬ 
ducive to error in the accuracy with which it is followed. 

6* A complex rhythm is less easily followed than a simple 
rhythm* 

7. The ability to follow a rhythm increase© with ago mite 
rapidly to about the 10th year, then slowly to about the 
age of 16, after which there is probably a loss in skill* 

8* The imposed rhythm is of value as a guide in motor activity 
because of It© influence toward a maximum of activity with a 
minimum of fatigue* 

9* Only the slow workers are aided and stimulated by the use 
of an Imposed rhythm; the rapid worker© probably being 
hindered* 

10* 3n the construction of written forms the tendency to make 







. 

. 

. 




















23 


successive strokes In the ©a&e length of time (temporal 
rhythm) increases with age* 

11* Speed of writing favors this type of rhythm* 

12* Temporal rhythm is sot definitely eorrelated with good form, v 
is fact my is certain eases prove a hindrance to it* 

13* Bhythmic power 1© not affected appreciably by see of arm 
movement ss compared with finger movement* 

14* Children increase more rapidly in ©peed than in accuracy 

of movement* The latter is also subject to wider variations* 
13* The lengthening of the interval of rest preceding a stroke 

tends to decrease the accuracy with which the stroke is made* 
though it is possible that this may not hold true of inter¬ 
vals of less than *3 seconds* 

16* Speed of movement is favorable to accuracy unless carried ^ 
to a degree beyond the limit fixed by natural habits* 

1?* The following of an imposed rhythm will assist in accuracy 
of movement only those who have such poor motor control 
as to need a etimulu© at the beginning of the stroke in 
order to carry them through it successfully* 

18* The imposed rhythm* when used * should be adapted to the 

particular need© of the individual* otherwise it 3© surely 
an artificsl factor in the situation* 

19* The increase of speed tend© to lengthen the stroke* 

20* Stroke© of greatly different length my be made in about 
the sar.e length of time* 

21* The complexity of a stroke affects the temporal character¬ 
istic© of that stroke and neighboring strokes* 

22* It is probably that there would be less variation in the 


. 

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. 




length of strokes with the acquisition of good rhythmic 
habits* 

23*2he chief elements of good coordination and organisation 
are 

(!) organisation of the line of writing into unit© of 
movement* 

iZ) arrangement of division points between units to 
correspond to the form being constructed* 

(3) execution of each unit in a well coordinated manner 
with the greatest speed in the middle of the stroke 
and a correspondence between speed and length and 
simplicity of the stroke* 

(4) consistency* or the (reduction of successive strokes 
with similar speed changes* due allowance being 
cade for change© in form* 

























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Bibliography 


1* Allbutt, f *C., Music, Rhythm ana pus cl ©..Mature, 

1894; 49:340 

2. Bolton, T.L., Rhythm, American Journal of Psychology 

1894; 6: 145-238 

3. Bryan, «*!., On the .Development of Voluntary Kotor 

Ability...American Journal of Psychology 
1892; 5: 125-204 

4. Dunlap, X*, Reactions to Rhythmic stimuli with attempt 

to Synchronize...Psychological Review 
1910; 17: 399-416 

5. Freeman, P.M., Problems and Methods of Investigation in 

Handwriting...Journal of Educational 
Psychology April 19X2; 3:181-190 

6. Freeman, P.H., The Handwriting Movement...Supplementary 

Educational Monographs; 1918; 2:*3 

7. Goechart, a., Educational Rhythm Training...national 

Education Association Report 1908:859-60 

8. KaeBougell, R.,Rhythm, Time and Humber...American Journal 

of Psychology 1902; 13: 88-97 

9. Miner, J.B., Kotor, Visual and applied Rhythms... 

Psychological Review Ponograph supplements 
1903 Vol. 5, 4; 1-106 

10* Kunaterberg, 11. Ged&chtnisstubien Beitrage sur ixparinentelle 
Psychologic 1892; 4: 218-ff. 

11. Hichols, H. The Psychology of Time*•.American Journal of 

Psychology 1890-2; 3: 453-529 1891-2 4:60-112 

12. Mutt, II.I., Rhythm in Handwriting...Elementary school 

Journal February 1917 17: 432-445 

13. Kuehmloh, G.A., The Role of Tinaesthesis in Perception 

American Journal of Psychology 1913; 24: 
305-59 

14* Sears, G.H., Studies in Rhythm...Pedagogical seminar 

1901; 8: 1-44 

15. Stuire. G.R., a Genetic Study of Rhythm*..American Journal 

of Psychology 1900-1; 12: 492-589 

16. Stetson, R.H., Rhythm and Rhyme.*.Psychological Review 

Monograph Supplements...4: 413-66 

17. Stevens, H.C., The Relation of the Fluctuations of Judgments 

* in the estimation of Time Intervals to the 
Vaso-motor waves...American Journal of 
Psychology 1902; 13: 1-27 

18. Wallin, J.S.W., Experimental Studies of rhythm and Time... 

Psychological Review 1911; 18: 100-222 

19. Woodworth, R.S., The Accuracy of Voluntary Movement... 

Psychological Review Monograph Supplement 
1899; 3 #2: 1-114 


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PART T30 

EXPEBIMBHTA1 STUBS' OP KBS THE JB 


HAjrDWRlTlKG 1QTEMEHE8 


















FUSPOSB : 

The experimental study herein outlined was undertaken as 
a preliminary study to the ©ore detailed analysis of Part III* 

In this experiment the chief consideration is the discovery 
of time relations which obtain in typical movements such as 
are used in handwriting* £&ch stroke is considered as made up 
of two elements. Best and 1 ovement* Hot only are these periods 
compared with each other as to duration but successive strokes 
are also compared to note the regularity of the time factor* 

The records of 48 subjects are here collected and analyzed; 

U) 

24 of these being adults, evenly divided into good and poor 
writers* the remaining 24 are children of whom half are less 
than 11 years of age and the other half above 11 years of age* 
These subjects were selected according to this grouping with 
the expectation of finding results bearing upon factors 
significant for good renmanship and age development* 

Cl) This division was made on the basis of the following 
considerations:. 

1* General appearance, and grade on the Ayres Seale, the goofi 
writers being graded at 75 or above, the poor writers fall* 
ing below the grade of 60* 

2* Specific characteristics as evenness of line, uniformity 
of spacing, and especially coordination which were present 
to a narked degree in the writing of the good writers and 
notably lacking in that of the poor writers* 









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Bach subject was tested for his characteristic behavior 
under conditions of free, spontaneous choice of rhythm, and in 
the following of an imposed rhythm* Heoords for each subject 
were gotten while he ms emphasising finger movement and these 
were compared with another set of records made ,/hile emphasizing 
arm movement• 3n this way it was hoped that data would be 
accumulated which would show the significance of the two types 
of movement in relation to natural rhythm as well as in 
response to a rhythmic stimulus* 

411-iEAfua mid ismm * 

The apparatus used in this part of the investigation was 
especially designed to give a graphic representation of the 
tine spent in a stroke, or in its elements of rest and move-* 
rent, on an extended scale, bo that approximately the exact 
amount of time taken in each phase of the movement might be 
computed* 

in Figure 1 is given a superior view diagram of the 


Figure 1. Showing Arrangement of Apparatus for Study of 
Handwriting Movements* 


apparatus and its connections* The subject me seated in the 
position indicated (W) at the table (A) in Hoorn I* On the 
table was placed conveniently the board (1) which had fastened 
to it the two thin brass strips (a) and (b), adjusted to a 
distance about one half inch apart, overlying the glass plate 
(c5* Both of these strips were connected through a iasjp 
battery (H) with e small electro magnetic marker (8) in Hoorn II, 





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ana the stylus (3)* The stylus was connected with the electric 
circuit by means of a very pliable wire which would not inter¬ 
fere with the freedoxa of movement of the stylus* *shen this 
stylus, being moved to and fro between the strips as in a 
writing movement, cam# in contact with either of the strips at 
the end of a stroke* an electric connection was established 
so as to move the marker point and hold it in that position 
until the circuit mm broken* 

The record of the movements of the marker point was made 
on a belt of smoked paper (&), running over the two kymograph 
drums {B) aad{0). These drums were driven by the electric 
motor {B), the speed of which was automatically controlled by 
the governor (5)* Suitable rate of movement of the recording 
surface was obtained by the use of the gear (6) and the belt 
and pulley connections {7}* 

The subject was advised to move the stylus to and fro 
between the strips in a natural vertical or slant movement, 
taking care to make contact with each strip, until notified 
to ©top. He was allowed a few minutes practise before the 
record was taken* 

irovlsian was made for analyzing the subject’s behavior 
in following the beat of a rhythmic stimulus in the following 
manner* a simple rhythmic beat was provided bj the use of 
the metronome {E) and was recorded by means of a second 
electro-magnetic marker (8) placed in circuit with it through 
the lamp rheostat (K)* electric contact between the pendulum 
of the metronome and the marker was made through the mercury 
cups (e), which were set in such vertical relationship to 



so 


each other and the points of the plunger bar, attached to the 
pendulum that successive contacts were erually spaced* It 
was found that the best of the metronome did not synchronize 
exactly with the electric contact, and in order to obviate this 
difficulty, a telegraph sounder (F) was introduced into the 
circuit# This instrument was placed near the subject in Boom 
I and so adjusted that a distinct click would be produced at 
each electric contact of the metronome pendulum. In order to 
prevent any confusion between the two types of stimuli, coming 
from the metronome and sounder respectively, the former was 
placed in a sound proof container (G) in Hoorn II* 

Simultaneous records were made, as indicated in Tigure 1, 
of both the rhythmic stimulus and the reaction of the subject 
to the stimulus* dare was taken to see that the two records 
were directly comparable in time by advancing the two marker 
points to corresponding positions on the face of the drum* 

The regularity of rhythmic action of the metronome, also the 
exactness of the time interval, were tested and insured by 
comparison with the record of a standardized tuning fork. 

Four records were made for each subject; one each of finger 
and arm movement, the subject setting up his own rhythm* and one 
each of finger and arm movement, the subject following an 
imposed rhythm* 

The records of imposed rhythm always followed those of 

spontaneous behavior in point of time so that no kinaesthetie 
or memorial impression of a practised rhythm might be carried 
over and serve to modify the spontaneous character of the 
subjects movement. The subjects were evenly divided into two 





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groups. The one group used the finger movement preceding ana 
movement in both spontaneous and imposed rhythm* while the 
other group used thre arc: movement preceding finger movement* 
This was done in order that the records of each group might 
be used as a check upon the records of the other, especially 
with reference to any possible influence that practise with 
the finger and the arm movements in any order might have. 

A portion of the original records of one individual is 
reproduced in Figure 3. each record being numbered according 


Figure Zm Section of Typical Record 


to its order of arrangement as follows: 

X. Spontaneous finger movement 

£♦ Bbythmic beat followed by subject in making record #3 

3. Finger movement with imposed rhythm 

4. Spontaneous arm movement 

5* Khythale beat followed by subject in raking record 6 

6. Arc movement with imposed rhythm. 

In the case of the records of the finger movements (1 and 
3) and arm movements (4 and 6) the sections fa,b.c.etc.)repre¬ 
sent the relative amounts of time spent at rest at the end of 
successive strokes; the lengths (x.y.z,etc.)represent the time 
of passage from the beginning of each stroke to its terminus* 
The sums (s plus b, y plus e, etc*} therefore represent 
respectively the total time taken from the beginning of one 
stroke to the beginning of the next, while the sums (a plus x, 
b plus y # c plus z, etc.) represent the total time taken fro© 
the completion of one stroke to the completion of the next. 

In the records {Z and 5} the points indicated by the 




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letters (A* 3, C* eta*} sate the incidence of the beat* As 
examination of the records (3 and o) ©hews that the lengths 
(x pin© b* y pins ©/etc*) fairly correspond a® to lengths 
and limits with those of the rhythmic beats (3 to 0, 0 to D* 
etc.} in the records 2 and § respectively* 

Keoords were measured a© follows* A millimetric role 
was laid along a record and the length of a section indicat¬ 
ing- the amount of time spent at rest was noted and measured 
in millimeters* also the total distance from the beginning 
of this period of rest to the beginning of the next period 
of rest* this being the total stroke* fhe difference between 
these two measures was also noted as indicating t e compara¬ 
tive amount of time spent in the movement proper* fhc space 
between the beats in records Z and & was noted as a test of 
regularity* fh# distance between the incidence of the beat 
and the beginning of the rest period in the movement follow¬ 
ing imposed rhythm was noted also* In case the subject were 
following the rhythm perfectly it is evident that the beginn¬ 
ing of the rest* (x) should fall directly below the point (3)* 
In case the deviation of the subject was due to lagging the 
measured difference was indexed with a minus sign* All 
measures were noted to the nearest millimeter* no fractions 
being considered* A group of fifteen successive measures, 
x plus b, y plus c, etc* were made from each record of any 
subject the starting point being selected at random* It was 
found that increasing the number of measures beyond fifteen 
did not serve to alter the general results or conclusions 
in the various records so dealt with whereas a smaller 



number, such as tea, introduced noticeable variations* 

fhe measures of tto records of each subject were tabu¬ 
lated as shorn in fable 1 In the Appendix* It should be 
kept in mind that t beseem assures in terms of millimeters 
are merely spatial representations of time elements* all 
measures of this type will be noted henceforth with the 
index symbol (a) following, to indicate the use of the linear, 
millimetrie unit of time* 

She computations made for each subject were; fhe average 
(Mean) length of time spent at rest, in movement and the 
total stroke; the mean deviation of the unit measures in each 
of these eases; the per cent deviation, or the average 
variation divided by the average duration; the positive or 
negative trend of the deviation from the metronome beat; the 
total deviation and the per cent deviation, including positive 
and negative cases, from the beat of the metronome; and the 
per cent of time spent at rest* fhese computations were 
made for both finger and arm movement, and for spontaneous 
( except the 3rd and 4th items } as well as with imposed 
rhythm* 

fhe Question of the reliability of the measures called 
for special attention* Occasional use of a standard tuning 
fork and marker on the drum showed that the range of varia¬ 
tion in the speed of movement of the drum in the making of 
two records at different times was less than 10 per cent 
while within the same record the regularity was quite constant 
with none exceeding 2 or 3 per cent of variation* hence, 
although the comparison of actual measure© of a series is 



slightly misleading* the comparison of the derived per cents 
of deviation of each subject from his own record average 
with the similar accomplishment of others is justifiable 
from the standpoint of reliability. In the case of movement 
with imposed rhythm the rhythmic beat was provided as a 
check, but the difference was eo small as to be negligible. 

’The tendency for any individual to vary from his own 
record in subsequent trials was tested in the case of four 
subjects with the purpose of discovering the reliability of 
a single record as a type of the individual's behavior. 

These results are shown in detail in Table £ of the Appendix* 
They exhibit a remarkable consistency for these subjects. 
Although the various subjects differed in their succeeding 
record to a marked degree in some cases, yet the extent of 
agreement throughout is indicative of typical performance 
for each* In Table 1 a comparative summary is shown which 


Table 1. 

The Tendency for Individuals to Vary from Their Own 
decords (1) as Compared with Their Tendency to Vary from 
the Records of Others of the Croup (£) 

Total Per Cent Variations 


(A) (B) 


Individuals* 


Average measures 

Per Cent of Time 


a) 

of duration 

Spent at dost 

W* * . * . . 



P ***** » 

...» 

... 14.3 ****** 

* * • * • lG.f> 

c.. 




p. * * * • « 

» * * * 

* * . 17. § *#•*♦• 

* * * * * • 1 

Average 

(si 

Tsar 

I0.& 

f of 1 # . * 




w * c . . . 




W * P . . . 




J* * C . * . 




p " p . . . 




C * P . . . 




Average 


27.9' 

“isn: 



















t*> lid ac.i* •?«* Koa» \& 4*tt *«**•» i® 



» c ; 

' 

Ml# t-o 

*XU '••■ vf;i- » «&fe .01 &1 *?»&<** aw •«* • — *>*v. 

# i ■* , . :\t. > ... -• > • - .' v ■'■• 

,: > •' , '"■■'■■■ 

-, . ;. -4- - v wt. ->«-■ ' 5 •-•• v -* ' 

P'p. PP '-Y;p* .' ::i ^1? . YC -. ' ■ ».i. J - * .> ■•■'■ 


&:C mil -,v * 

:’F. & * 

i s l 






ri.ixv .. •: $1S*3 

4Sf 


i4a.bt&Y ;--iu • Jter<.£ 





i&£ftwz*>£' 




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35 


may be interpreted an fellows* The records of subject W in 
two trials were analysed and the total per cent variations 
made from his own record in the iiest, stroke and Total periods 
with Spontaneous movement were found to be 9*5* Kie per cent 
variation in the per cent of time spent at uest in both 
Spontaneous and Imposed Hhytbm was in the same way found to he 
7*8* In the same way each group of record© was analyzed for 
each individual* In {£} i*s record on one trial is compared 
with y*e record on one trial and the per cent variation found, 
and so on through all the possible combinations* 

It is noteworthy that the average deviation of the 
Individuals from each others’ records is from 50 to more than 
10Gjs greater than the average deviation of the members of 
the group from their own records* There is a general similari¬ 
ty of records for the few members of this group, however, which 
may be attributable to the fact that the subjects dealt with 
re resent rather a unified body of adults* All were good 
writers whose writing showed about the same grade on the Ayres 
Handwriting scale and whose writing movement ms characterized 
by free flowing strokes and, in general, a consistent per¬ 
formance* Such similarities suggest questions regarding 
characteristic performance which is later considered under 
the topic of habituation (p*146 ff* )* 

It could hardly be expected that an individual would 
continue constant in his record day after day, unless he had 
developed definite habits of movement and the conditions of 
his environment, physique and mental attitude remained the 
same* In case such variation mere great enough to call into 


. 

. 

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■ 

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36 


quest ion the results of a single record in point of view of 
reliability* the averaging of two or more records would be 

i 

necessary. The inclusion of a number of subjects in the 
experiment would tend to neutralise the effect of chance 
variations of any individual from hie own j receding or 
characteristic behavior, since the chances are even that the 
cumulative variations below the true type would be equal to 
those above. furthermore, any persistent difference between 
the records of the members of a ipreup, or the average of the 
group, and those of another group, would tend to indicate an 
actual significance in the measures hence may be considered 
an index of reliability* Such group differences were found 
clearly marked as will be noted in the following pages. 

fable 3 of the Appendix gives a compilation of the aver- 
age measures of all the subjects tat were examined in this 
experiment* Group One of the Adults was made up of writers 
who might be generally termed "good writers” according to 
the scientifically accepted standards. All wrote very legi¬ 
bly with good clearly formed characters, and with free 
flowing movement, and steady progression within the stroke. 
Group Two of the adults was selected because of poor penman¬ 
ship judged according to the same standards. Some of the 
poor writers were fairly legible writers, but the written 
forms were poorly shaped and the stroke seldom regularly 
constructed. Group One of the Children is made up of younger 
children ranging in age from 4 years, 10 months to 10 years, 
10 months, with an average ago of 6 years, 11 months., while 
Group Two is composed of those from 11 years to 17 years. 



3 months* with an average ago of 14 year®* 10 months* 

In fable B below a gmamuty table is given in which only 
the averages for the respective groups are given* It should 
be noted that these are the measures of duration expressed 
in linear millimetrie measure* fee records for finger and 
arm are compared for all groups as to the length of time 
spent on the rest period preceding the movement* also on the 
stroke period or the movement itself* and the total period 
made up of both the preceding* those wishing to acquaint 
themselves with feller detailed study of individual records 


fable g 

Summary of the Average accords of Good and Poor Adult Writers 
and Younger and Older Child Writer® in Duration of the fetal 
Stroke and elements of the Stroke Without and With Imposed 
fihythm ( in terms of M }* 

Stroke fetal 

Best Stroke fotal 



ling* 

Arm. 

Mng. 

Arm* 

JESgT 

Aim. 

(Good 

1?* 

IB* 9 

19.7 

BE. 7 

36*7 

88.6) 

Adult {fear 

16.9 

13. 

18*1 

£1.1 

38* 

34* )Spontan. 

Average 

16*9 

IB.9 

13*9 

£1*9 

85*8 

84*8) 

(Good 

£8*7 

18*2 

17*9 

£3*9 

41.6 

42.1) 

Adult {Poor 

£4*7 

19*3 

17*1 

£1.6 

41.8 

40.9)Imposed 

Average 

£4.2 

18*7 

17.3 

££•8 

41*7 

41.8) 

(Young.21.9 

18*1 

19.7 

22*3 

41*6 

41.2) 

Child (Older 16.1 

14.6 

20* 7 

£3* 

86.8 

87*6)8pontan. 

Average 

19. 

16.3 

20.fi 

£3* 

89* 

89*4 i 

(Young.27.9 

20.4 

13.1 

£1*4 

41. 

41.8) 

Child (Older 84.7 

19.4 

17.1 

£1*8 

41.7 

41.2)Imposed 

Average 

£6.3 

19.9 

16.1 

£1.6 

41*4 

41.81 


should inspect fable 3 of the Appendix* In fable B above* 
the Average of the two adult groups is computed as is also 
that of the two child groups in each case for ready comp&rl 







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S8 


son of child and adult behavior. 

The differences w hioh obtain between finger end arm 
movement result® as well as between movement with spontaneous 
and Imposed rhythm and also between adult and ehild groups 
is evident, but the question arises whether these differences 
are large enough to be significant as actual differences, or 
whether they might possibly be due to chance* Such a question 
can be answered statistically by the computation of a coeffi¬ 
cient of reliability for each comparison isade. The reliabili¬ 
ty of the differences between the group averages when used 
for comparative purposes was computed and is here tabulated 
in fable 3. 


fable 3 


Coefficients of heliability for Comparative studies 
of halations hip in the Results of fable 2. 


Difference Diff*divided by Degree of 
in Averages F.R* of diff* Reliability 
Coefficient of 
Reliability 


1* Comparison of Result© for Spontaneous and Imposed Rhythm 


Adult Croups 

-« S 8 " 

Strok© 

mi 


Child Croups 


Rest 


Finger 

Arm 


stroke 


Finger 

Arm 


Total 


Finger 

Ana 


7.3 

6.76 

absolute 

5.8 

7.4 

absolute 

1.4 

1.6 

poor 

.9 

1.07 

low 

5.9 

6.2 

absolute 

6.7 

6.6 

absolute 

7.3 

7.2 

absolute 

3.6 

4.7 

high 

a.i 

5.9 

absolute 

1.4 

1.0 

fair 

2*4 

1.95 

good 

2.1 

2.15 

good 





. 

v, ./an-. *,Ui$ *Ji \.c \ 4 4ml» h$m zr • • 

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—;... , . 3 . • ■ fi> c; .Hi', * ■ ' - ** ‘ • 

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*u.v . ■>. : ■■ • ilv„ ■'■■.:■/ » i*** -v: *** •• - f ^ 


. 





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. 

. 

: 


•> •♦ 

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&Xie& 

:: 


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(fable 3 continued,; 


3* Comparison of Adult and Child Groups: 
losing Spontaneous Khytte 

Best 


Eest 


Finger 

3.1 

1.61 

fair 

Arm 

3.4 

* 4.13 

high 

Finger 

1.3 

1.5 

poor 

Arm 

1.1 

1.1 

very 

Finger 

3*3 

2.1 

good 

Arm 

4.6 

3.3 

high 

id Ehythm 



Finger 

3.1 

2.5 

good 

Arm 

1. 2 

1.66 

poor 

Finger 

2.4 

2.8 

good 

Arm 

1.2 

1.7 

poor 

Finger 

.3 

.8? 

very 

Arm 

0 

0 

none 


3* Caparison of filler and Arm Boveraenta: 
Adult Groups 


«„*. Spontan.4. 

" esl Innosed 5.5 

4. 

high 

6.2 

absolute 

atT-nir* sipontan 3. 
atroi.e inpoaed 5*3 

3.3 

high 

6.4 

absolute 

lotal “F 0Iltan x * 

.72 

very low 

^ Imposed .2 

.*05 

very low 

I 

a 

bpontan 2.7 

2.7 

good 

*es¥ imposed 6.4 

8.4 

ab oiute 

**w%ir* Gpontan 2.8 
stroke a . 6 

5.1 

good 

8.8 

absolute 

Total ^ oatan * 4 

i0tal Imposed .1 

.26 

very low 

• 28 

very low 


The reliability of a difference depend© on several fac¬ 
tors, the difference between the categories compared being 
the basic one* fhis difference is however of little signifi¬ 
cance except in relation to the mean variation of the 





. 

£*£ %*$&$& 

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1 


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.-**./■$ i.r-^is;:•'•... •••.:; .‘&fss- . ■ wm' itllti ---XJtex - ■ 

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; . , - ’ . - ' * • • 



40 


respective measures* And in the last place* the number of 
cases or subjects that have gene to make up this measure 
assist in determining how large a part chance may have played 
in the establishing of the difference* 1 Therefore it ie 
necessary to take these factors into consideration in comput¬ 
ing the coefficient of reliability* 

•This is done by finding first the Probable error of the 
Mean for each group of measures to be compared* (P& - *b455 A*D* } 
The two P*E* f © are next related to discover wfe&t is the 
Probable Arror of the difference between the two averages* 

r.E. A * V P.E. 2 -h KJL 2 

d If mj, mg 

The actual difference C £} between the averages must 
necessarily be larger than the range of the Probable krror in 
order to be reliable* In other words* by the operation of pure 
chance tbs difference might amount to the &wm as the amount 
indicated by the Probable .error* Kugg states^ 1 ' that for 
dependable reliability it ie requisite that the coefficient of 
reliability ( the Difference divided by the P*i£* of the differ¬ 
ence ) should be at least 1*9* bo that the chances will be 

about 4 to 1 in favor of a real controlling distinction between 

( 2 ) 

the compared results* 

The tables of values for the formal Probability Integral* 
as ordinarily given, ^ do not consider coefficients above 
6 f.ii* end any coefficient near or above this point may bo 

1* Mugg, H*0* * statistical Methods Applied to Education* 
Boughton-Mifflin do. 1917*.*p 222. 

2. The method of reliability here employed is based upon 
Whipple, £r*M** Manual of Mental and Physical iOets- 
Part One Warwick and York, 1914...*pp*24-27. 

2* See (Ibid) also Augg (Op.cit.) fable IV Appendix,!. S91 





. 


/.j.- . 




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- 

. . . . ,¥ ‘ w. V •" *'• ' ; . 

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‘ -i 

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m 


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- , 'Sr 


••• i;' r. 

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considered as absolutely reliable* Between the extreme ranges 
of coefficients, zero and absolute, we have noted very poor, 
poor or low, good, high and very high* 

It is noteworthy that 10 of the 36 comparisons made show, 
in Table 3, a high degree of reliability that may be called abso¬ 
lute, 5 are high, 7 are definitely good, while two others are 
on the border of good$ making altogether 34 which show reliable 
differences* Of the remainder, wlthough differences will be 
noted, they will not be credited as proved without further data, 
and, in some oases at least, the fact of similarity may be as sig¬ 
nificant as any difference that might exist* 

Analysis of aotuol Time Measures: 

The combined averages of the adult groups and the child 
groups, as noted in Table 3, are depicted graphically in Diagram 
1 so as to show the comparison of the records made by the adult 
and child subjects, without regard to penmanship ability or age, 
under the various conditions of the experiment* 

The at tempt to follow t h e rhythmlo beat resulted in a 
perceptibly greater length of time being spent on the total 

stroke period than was the case when the subject was allowed 
to set his own rhythm. This is an indication that the imposed 
beat was slightly slower than the natural rhythm of the average 
of the group, although it was as rapid as could be well followed t 
at least by the majority of subjects. This is true of both 
the adults and children, though the adults slowed down to a 
greater extent* It is also evident with both finger and armm 
movement* 






r ,%I ,*t4*i£<n vJa>«£o*»a .« A*™HotfCS 

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swr* !JK • ••a* "’ <Sf^. X* %i '•£ . jm *f -fa .'.[•% 

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42 



Diag.l. Comparison of Child and Adult Groups as to 

the Amount of Time Spent at Sest,on the Stroke, 
and on the Total Movement under the Various 
Gonditons of Finger and Arm Movement without 
and \?ith Imposed Rhythm* 

-.-ADULTS -CHILDREN 


One of the most persistent differences noted between 
the various groups, under the various eonditons of the ex¬ 
periment is in the relative amount of time of the total 
period that is given to rest* A summary of Tabla 4 (Append^ 














































































43 


here given in Table 4* so that all the group records may he 
compared as to their behavior with finger and arm movement 
both without and with imposed rhythm* 

fable 4 

Average Percentage of Time Spent at Heat 


Spontaneous 


Imposed 


Adult 



Finger 

Arm 

Finger 

Arm 

Better Writers 

46 

57.1 

54.4 

45.6 

oorer riters 

47.1 

39. 

58.7 

48.1 

r&m .. 

46.5 

56. 

56.5 

“44.5"" 

Younger 

6S.8 

44.2 

46.4 

49.7 

Older 

45. 

38.7 

56.5 

47.2 

*sm. .. _ . 

46.4 

41.4 

62.4 

4b. 4 


For purposes of comparing the adult and child averages 
above* the following Table of reliability (Table 3) is here 
presented. The method of determining the coefficient of 
reliability is the same as that used before (Table 3). 

Table 5 


Reliability of differences in the report!on 
of Time Bpent at Rest. 


difference 


ratio of 
Reliability 


degree of 
reliability 


1. Comparison of results for spontaneous and Imposed rhythm; 


Adults ?i? ger 

rrm 


10 

6*3 


4.6 

3.5 


very high 
high 


Child 


Finger 

Arm 


14 

7 


7 

4*8 


absolute 
very high 


E. Comparison of Adult and Child Croups; 


Finger 
b £° n# Arm 


1.9 

3.4 


*92 

2*3 


low 

good 












44 


Imposed f in & er 

Ana 4.1 


2.8 

£.5 


good 

good 


5. Comparison of kesults for Finger and irm Iovement* 


Children 


apontan* 

8.5 

4.5 

very high 

Imposed 

12.2 

5.7 

absolute 

Spoatan. 

7. 

4.1 

high 

• Imposed 

14. 

7.S 

absolute 


ffce differences show themselves to he reliable in nearly 
all oases, ffee one exception is due to the fact that the 
child average considered is made up of two widely different 
measure#; one much higher than the adult, the other lower so 
that the factor of age development in the child group inter¬ 
feres with the comparative value, which would obtain if only 
the younger children were considered. 

The date of the shove fables (4 and 5) show quite clearly 
that imposed rhythm causes the subject to quicken his stroke 

and s end more t ime proportionat ely at rest than is the case 
with spo n taneo u s rhythm. In case the conclusion noted 
(pp. 16-17) in taken as conclusive, the lengthening of the 
period of rest preceding the stroke would tend to diminish 
the accuracy of the stroke, hence the imposed rhythm would 
operate to a disadvantage in the ease of the majority of sub¬ 
jects. 

fhe finger appears quicker In movement than the arm , the 
latter always limiting itself to a shorter rest period than 
the finger, the arm is not ao facile an agent as the finger 
in executing a movement on account of its inertia, hence the 
subject ie forced to make the accommodation whereby more time 






















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r//'_**/ z '"JS^77/"7Z7? t z7ii/ii7Er,?'"**///' 


5PON7A/fi?otfs 


f 


IMPOSED 


D/mg. 2 Per Cert or Time Spent 
nr Rest qk the Nrpious Qroups l/s/nq 
F/nqer /i no ffriM Movement without r/yd 
With In posed Rntthm . 


Legend 


mmm You/Y$ER CH/LDRE/Y 

■ .— OLDER C/Z/LDRE/Y 

- - —> SfouL r - Poor Wk/ rafts 
m m m PDUL. T - Good WR/raRS 
UPPER LIMITS OF COLUMNS - RECORD W/TH 
TINKER MOVEMENT. 

Lower um/ts op columns * record with 

ARM MOVEMENT- 












































45 


is provided for the movement proper than * hen the finger move¬ 
ment is used. Age does not seem to be a significant factor 
in relation to this adjustment since child and adult group© 

p 

show quite similar behavior* It might be inferred that the use 
of the arm would give greater accuracy of movement than the 
finger, again referring to the conclusion auove noted (pp 16,25) 
but it must be kept in mind that that conclusion is not based 

upoii comparison of different motor elements, out upon different 
conditions under which the same one operates* 

fhe differentiated groups of Better Adult Iriters, Poorer 
Adult ritere, lounger Children and Older Children are compared 
in diagram 2, as to their respective average percentage of time 
spent at rest under the various conditions* In the case of 
ever?,- group Imposed rhythm results in a greater amount of rela¬ 

tive time bein g g iven to rest, b o th with t-.e me of finger and 
arm movement» fable 4 of the Appendix show© this to be true. 


diagram 2* Per Cent of lime at Best 


not merely a© a quantitative average, but also as charactertic 
of the majority of the subjects, all of the children and all 
but four of the adults being thus affected* except in the case 
of better adult writers the difference is oremarled in linger 
than in arm movement* 

fhe younger c hi ldren give a longer proportion ate time to 
rest than do am of the other group© , and this maybe fairly 
regarded as symptomatic of their greater inaccuracy of movement. 
£he older child group is not eo clearly differentiated fro© the 


















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46 


adult group?, in fact the record is generally smaller than that 
of the group of poor adult writer®, and compares Quite favor a hi;* 
with the record of the better adult writers, even being less 
with the use of finger movement in auto-rhythmitissstion* 

It is probably significant that the quadrilateral figure 
representing the records of the better adult writers is so 
nearly a perfect paralleliogram showing that the finger and 
mem are equally affected by the imposition of rhythm* the 
other groups show no such a uniformity of difference, but on 
the contrary show that the finger and arm are unequally affect¬ 
ed, the former showing a much greater difference with imposed 
rhythm than the latter* the better adult writers seem to have 

a more . perfe ct control of the motor factors of both aim and 

finger and have no di f ficulty in making the adjustment with 
either to if:posed rhythm* The group of poorer adult writers 

presents a record which is almost identical in form with that 

with that of the yonager children , although It is placed lower 
in the scale, and this type of record may be symptomatic of 
the lack of motor control which is known to exist in these two 
groups. Thm older children show a modification of finger 
movement similar to that of the younger children, but the 
change in the results far arm movement is more like that of 
the better adult writers* fbla may be due to the fact that 
this group has not yet attained fixed control of the finger 
movement to the degree that arm Movement has been habituated* 
the correlation of age with the per cent of time spent at 
rest among the child groups has been worked out for the differ¬ 
ent conditions of finger and aria movement, without and with the 















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47 


Imposition of the rhythmic guide. the computation of the 
coefficient of correlation for the four cases is presented in 
fable 5 of the Appendix* the Pearson method by grades being 
made use of as the one best adapted to indicate readily though 
roughly any prominent relationship that might exist* fhe 
coefficients there discovered are as follows: 

Coefficients of Correlation between Age and Percent of Time 
Spent at heet 

spontaneous Imposed hhytha 
finger Movement (At -.641 ±.08 (0) -.507 ±.104 

Arm i overrent (B) -.468 ±.109 (P) -.01 

It is noteworthy that the coefficients in Parts A*B, 
and G, although not great, are large enough to indicate the 
presence of a marked degree of negative correlation in each 
case. But in fart P there is no evidence of any correlation 
between the two factors. 

fhe findings of the correlation computation agree con¬ 
sistently with those already noted (p. 43 ) in which group 
averages only were considered. As children ^;row older they 
tend to £ive less proportionate time to the rest period at 

the initiation of the strode when acting without a rhythmic 

guide, and also when using finger movement with imposed rhythm . 
but when attempting to follow the Imposed rhythm while using 

arm movement this relationship does not hold. Arm movement 
habite have been formed which must be readjusted when an 
imposed rhythm is followed, this introduces an element of 
uncertainty into the subject's behavior which manifests itself 











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48 


by as increase of the rest period* Finger habits hare not 
been formed in the majority of oases which cause difficulty in 
taking on an Imposed rhythm, hence the adjustment is Quite 
readily made* 

Analysis of derived Measures of Variability: 

In fable 4 of the Appendix is given a. summary of findings 
with regard to the variation of the single measures of each 
subject from the average duration of his stroke elements* 
this fable is composed in a similar way to that of fable 8 of 
the Appendix so as to make ready comparison of finger and ana 
movement results under conditions of spontaneous and imposed 
rhythm* In addition, the percentage of time spent at rest is 
computed, for each subject, and also the percentage of devia¬ 
tion of each subject from the imposed beat is noted in Parts 
B and 0* In Bart 0 the age of the child subjects is added as 
a matter of reference. In fable 6 the means for the perfor¬ 
mance of the various groups are presented, distinction using 
made between the better and poorer adult writers, as well as the 

fes 

youiiger and older children* Only the matter of variation is here 
dealt with. See pp.43 ff and 60 ff* for a presentation of 
summer• tables for the remainder of the data. 

fable 6 

Average Coefficients of variation from Temporal Uniformity 


Group 

Best 

Stroke 

fetal 


-Ting. 

Arm 

Flag. 

.Arm 

Fing* 

Arm 

, . Good 

13*7 

18. £ 

10*8 

e.7 

6*8 

6.4) 

Adult 

18.4 

18*6 

IX* 

7.8 

6.8 

6*8) Spontaneous - 

Average 

14*8 

18*8 

10*7 

8*3 

6.6 

6.4) 











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Adult 

On od 

14.3 

15*8 

10.8 

9.7 

8. 

7.1) 

Poor 

16.1 

17.3 

13. 

lie 

6.4 

7*8)Imposed 

Average 

15. £ 

17.£ 

11.9 

10*3 

8*£ 

7.4) 

Child 

Young £1.8 

£0. 

£4.1 

14.4 

13.7 

8.8) 

Older 16.3 

16.6 

13. 

9.4 

14.4 

7.9)Spontaneous 

Average 

19. 

17.9 

18*6 

11.9 

14. 

8.3} 

Child 

Young 16.6 

££.9 

ED. 5 

17. E 

11.6 12.2J 

Older 15.8 

£1.76 

15*5 

14.9 

e.8 

9.7}Irarosed 

Average 

17.£ 

££.3 

18. 

16. 

10.3 

11* ) 


The reliability of the averages of fable 6 for comparative 
purposes is compute & ana presented in fable 7, the same method 
of computation being used as in fable 3 Cpp* Only 

the combined averages for all adults, and all Children are here 
treated because only IE cases provide a manifestly inadequate 
number for intensive statistical treatment. 

fable 7 

Coefficients of Iieliabiiity for Comparative 
studies of Eelationehip in the desalts of fable 4* 


Difference of Coefficient of Degree of 
Averages Beliability Bellability 


Comparison of results 

for spontaneous and 

imposed 

Bhytfc® 

Adult Croups; 

.7 

1*1 

.61 

.70 

very 

very 

low 

low 

^troAe 

Arm 

l.£ 

£. 

1.4 

£.7 

poor 

good 


fotal 

1.7 

1* 

£.75 

£.06 

good 

good 


Child Croups; 

Beet 

Arm 

1.8 

4.4 

1*51 

£.8 

poor 

good 


s .r^IS«“ 

.5 

4.1 

•32 

4.1 

very 

high 

low 

, ringer 
fotal Arm ° 

3.7 

£.7 

he 

m 






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50 


2* Comparison of Adult and Child Groups; 
Using Spontaneous rhythm; 


Eeet 

Finger 

4.0 

3*7 

high 

Arm 

2* 

1*46 

poor 

Strode 

Finger 

7.6 

6*6 

absolute 

Am 

2*6 

6.0 

very high 

fotal 

Finger 

7.6 

6.4 

absolute 

Am 

1.9 

4.10 

high 


Using Imposed Ahythras 


Aest 

Finger 

2. 

1.77 

fair 


Arm 

0.6 

0.2 

high 


Strode 

Finger 

6.1 

5.00 

very 

high 

Arm 

6.7 

6.6 

very 

high 

fatal 

Finger 

2.1 

0.17 

high 


A V v@yi 
** 

Am 

0.6 

4.9 

very 

high 

Comparison of Finger and 

Arm Movements: 



Adult Groups: 





Kest 

Spentan 

1.4 

1.10 

low 


Imposed 

1*0 

1.3 

low 


Stroke 

Spentan 

2*4 

3.6 

high 


imposed 

1.6 

1.74 

fair 


Total 

Spontan 

.1 

• 2 

none 


Imposed 

.6 

1.27 

low 


Child Groups; 





Heat 

spent an 

1.1 

.01 

very 

low 

Imposed 

5.1 

3.6 

high 


Stroke 

Spent an 

6.6 

4.85 

very 

high 

Imposed 

2. 

1*6 

poor 


Total 

Spent an 

5.7 

6.0 

absolute 

im? used 

.7 

.92 

low 



fhe findings shown in the above table will be referred to 
as oeoasion demands in the ©ueoee&ing disc ties ion* 

Is diagram £ the average measures of fable 6 are presented 



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51 


graphically in much the same order a® in the table with a view 
to easy comparison of the records for finger and arm movement 
while in Diagram 3 they are placed in a different order from 
that of the table with the purpose of emphasising the effect 
of irm osed rhythm upon behavior. 


Diagram 3 iroup Averages of Variation from Temporal Uniformi¬ 
ty. Arranged to Show Comparison of Accords with 
Finger and Arm Movement. 


Diagram 4 Croup .verages of Variation from fern*;oral ...niformi- 
ty. arranged to Chow Comparison of decor As with 
Spontaneous and Imposed nhythm. 


General Comparison of Croups: 

It is noticeable from the data of fable 6 and Diagrams 

i 

2 tnd 4, that the variational the younger children is generally 
greater than that of any of the other groups, and that the 

adults show the least variation In nearly every case, with the 

gr oup o f b etter writers m ai ntaining, a slightly superior record 
of regularity . fhe group of older children exhibits a record 

which fluctuates between the records of the younger children 
and adults, fm high reliability of the difference between 
the children and adults has been noted (Table p.49 }. The 
clear delineation of the two child groups and the two adult 
groups and the consistent results of the whole table indicate 
still further the reliability of the measures* 

Halation of Stroke A1©meats; 

The comparatively high per cent of variation which occurs 












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la tii© rest ant stroke periods # especially the former, and 
the lower deviation in the total period would sees to indicate 
a..general reaction to the total period as a unit that is not 

evident In either th© period of rest or the tli a given to the 
movement proper. The Initial adjustment in the rest is ex¬ 
perienced as an essential element in the total stroke equally 
with the motion itself. The rest and stroke periods tend to 
be more variable than the total j cried* but comparison of the 
rest periods with successive stroke periods shews that the 
lengthening of either stroke or rest periods beyond the average 
of a given subject tends to be compensated for by a correspond¬ 
ing shortening of the rest or stroke period respectively, and 
vice versa. 

Comparison of Finger and krm movement; 

She contrast between the amounts of variation gotten with 
the use of finger and arm movement respectively is in some 
eases quits striking, but on the wool© the differences arc not 
highly reliable.(p. 50.). W© will first generally not© the trend 
of measures ms evidenced in the table, then discuss more in 
detail those which appear most reliable* I Use 3 }. 

The use of t h e art'* movement see ms in general to favor the 
time rhythm when the child Initiates his own rhythm. This is 
ve ry notable in the case of the child groups in all stroke 
elements. Tm child lm& evidently not been able to bring his 
finger movement under such regular control, as he has his ana 
movement, the arm is a more massive instrument and its inertia 
causes it to be more rhythmically moved than the fingers which 















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are lighter sad more subject to variable controls. 

Possibly practise may have had something to do with this 
characteristic* since most of the children received training in 
arm movement exorcises in the public schools. the adults do 
not show any reliable debarkation between, the two type© of 
movement In these result©* 

attempt childre n, to follow the Imposed rhythm 
© eemg to affect the temporal regul arity of_the arm movement 
unfavorably to a greater extent than i s t he case with f inger 
mo vement , fh# arm mmm& interfere© with proper readjustment 
to an objective stimulus* The adults, however, seem to have 
attain ed such control as to gi ve the arm movement a slight 
advant a ge, un d er th e same conditions, except in the period of 
rest. 

Comparison of spontaneous and Imposed Ehythms: 

Thm effect of the rhythmic stimulation is clearly noticeable 
( Diagram 4)* In genera l , f or f « th e amount of varia¬ 

tion is markedly greater In both finger and arm movement when 
the rhythm is followed , the only exception occurs in the case 
of the better writers during the rest period with the use of 
the arm movement, when a smaller variation is evident, the 
record for spontaneous movement being comparatively high, The 
bet ter writers, for the most part, show less modification of 
behavior when f oll owing the rhythm than do the other groups . 

the younger chil dren exhibit a tendency Quite different 
from t h at of the adults when fo llo wing the rhy thm. ; here 
finger movement Is used the variation Is smaller with imposed 
r hythm, while the variation is greate r with arm movement . The 















































older children show the seine tendency except in the movement 
proper. In which their record 1 b very much like that of the 
adults in character* ^ouhtleee this fact lm closely related 
to types of habituation* It may be that the child has already 
fixed quite definite habits of temporal regularity with the 
use of the arm and any attempt to modify this type of perfor¬ 
mance in accordance with an artificial objective naturally 
meets with definite interference* On the other hand, the 
child does not sees to have attained any temporal rhythmic 
control of the fingers, hence the adjustment is quite ready 
in taking on an imposed rhythm* Again, as has already been 
suggested, the underlying factor may be the physiological 
adaptability of the arm for rhythmic movement as compared with 
the finger, in which case habituation is the secondary and 
derived clement* However, that may be, it is signif ica nt that 

t he adults fi nd. it more difficult to adapt t hem selves to a 

rhythm foreign to tfai-lr habits than do the children, eo t hat 
the Imposed rhythm actually decreases their temporal regularity * 

the individual records of fable 4 of the Appendix show 
that only mm of the 15 subjects under 11-1/2 years of age 
exhibits a smaller variation in the total period when using arm 
movement in following the rhythm* those child subjects over 
this age either show a smalltr variation or a proportionately 
smaller degree of positive difference than the yoeager subjects, 
the majority of the younger subjects .man!feet a corresponding 
tendency to smaller variation when following the rhythmic beat 
with the finger movement* 










55 


Comparison of troupe as to itange of ¥ariation; 

Stud^r of the comparative length of rang© betimes, the 
lowest record of any individual in the respective group and 
the highest individual record made in the particular element 
shows that In general the range of most of the groups is 


scale, compared with 

the other periods. 



the total spread for each 

group is summarized In 

the 

following fable (fable 5} by strode unite* 

with a view to 


Table 

8 



iv&mre of Variation 







iouag 

Setter Adult 

Poorer Mult 

Old Child 

Child 

Span* 

14 

18.5 

15.8 

30.6 

Finger Ij3pos# 

14 

33.4 

17.4 

EG. £ 

Best 





Spun. 

El.4 

18.8 

£4.8 

£4.1 

Arm Impos. 

El.3 

m. i 

ED. 8 

£6* 

Spon* 

9. 

13.9 

14.8 

36. 

Fingeri S p OS# 

15.5 

15.4 

17.4 

34. 

Stroke 





Spon* 

9.4 

13. 

5.9 

EE. 2 

A33a Impos* 

16. 

15.4 

16.5 

£1.4 

t^ikloL 

9.7 

9.5 

8.1 

El* 5 

15.6 

7.6 

20.1 
13.5 

Total 





w, Spoa* 

7.4 

6.4 

5*6 

11.7 

impos* 

8.9 

10. 

17.7 

1B.7 

summation 

155.9 

£04*4 

178.9 

275*1 


noting the comparison of the groups as to their tendency to a 
wide range of variation* According to this table it is seen 
that the younger child group furnishes a total of spreads 
nearly twice that of the better adult writers whiletheolder 















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56 


children tore a range which is about an average of the two 

adult groups . On the basis of this evidence "one must re cog*- 
ni 2 © the tendency of the younger and poorer writers toward wid¬ 
er ranges of variation * 

fhe ran&e of variation for the fgroup of better writers is 

relatively less than for any of the other groups, though it is 
not in every case smaller, or placed lower in the scale* In 
no case doe© the record for younger children show the lowest 
measure or the smallest range; in fact the extremely wide range 
which occurs in most cases with this group ie most significant* 
Some -embers of the grou of poorer adult writers exhibit as 
large a variation as any of the younger children bat this occur© 
only in the results gotten under conditions of imposed rhythm* 
The older children show throughout a record slightly inferior to 
that of the hotter adult writers in point of both s read and 
lower limits of variation* and are in many eases superior to 
the group of poorer adult writers in these respects. 

fhe imposition of rhythm tends to inarcage the ran&e and 
heighten the lower limit of all groups In the total period with 

the use of arm movement , The same thing is true of the stroke 
period, but in the rest period only the poorer writers and the 
younger children shorn a greater range under these conditions, 
ifeen finger movement is used the attempt to follow the rhythm 
results in a smaller range of variation for the children, at 
least for the total triad, but all group© show greater range 
of variation in the stroke period with imposed rhythm than 
without it. 

Ar m movement tends generally to give less,,range of yarla- 














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57 


fclpft among all groups than does finger movement when the 

rhythmic movement la undirected * But when rhythm is imposed 
the poorer writers alone show a greater range in the total 
period with finger movement* 

In general the range of variation as shown in the records 
harmonise with the averages before noted* It is noteworthy 
t at the arm is again* by this method* indicated as more sus¬ 
ceptible to natural tern oral regularity* but not as apt as the 
finger in taking on an imposed rhythm* It Is possible that 
some of the poorer adult writers were so thoroughly habituated 
in the rhythmic movement of the fingers that the attempt to 
modify their finger movement in accordance with the rhythmic 
stimulus met with definite interference* 

A stud;, of the place rank of each individual of the 48 
subjects in comparison with the others was made. * 

) It was found that about 34,4 of the total number 
which have variations greater than the median is equally divid¬ 
ed between the two adult groups* while 4Q> of this number are 
composed of younger children* and the remainder, or 26p> are 
made up of the older children* There is, therefore, shorn to 
be a distinct correlation between am and decrease in variation . 

There is no evidence however that the group of better writers 

among the adults have a better average rank than the poorer 
writers* 

It is noteworthy that some subjects receive a high rank 
in finger movement but low In arm movement, or vice versa, 
while others tend to receive about the same rank in each under 
the same conditions* In the same way* imposed rhythm may 













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58 


operate bo as to effectually change a person’s rank in either 
finger or arm movement or both, or it may not affect either 
appreciably* To what extent these factors are characteristic 
of any person’s behavior could only be told by an intensive 
analysis of individual cases through many repetitions of well 
controlled experimentation. 

A detailed study of the place rank of the subjects reveals 
a mar k ed overlapping of rhythmic abilities of ch ildren and 
adults, The children differ quite markedly from the adults 
when using finger movement while initiating their own rhythm, 
but show a trend quite similar to that of the adults when 
using arm movement, The use of the imposed rhythm tend© to 
bring the two groups toward agreement when using finger move¬ 
ment by affecting the adults unfavorably and the children 
favorably, but when the arm movement is used with imposed 
rhythm, the children are unfavorably affected to a more marked 
degree than the adults, hence tend to deviate to a greater 
extent from the characteristic adult trend. These facts again 
substantiate t ose already noted (pp. 51-4 ) and tend to con¬ 
firm the hypothesis that the finger rhythm is later in being 
acquired than the arm rhythm, and further, that the imposition 
of rhythm is of no immediate help to rhythmitis&tion when such 
natural rhythmic habits have once been formed, in either finger 
or arm movement* 

Many members of each group do not follow the imposed rhythm 
with as good an effect on temporal regularity as do others, in 
fact, show themselves adversely affected by it* It is possible 





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. 


§9 


that this fact may be due to the newness of the exercise, and 
might he overcome by a longer period of drill, but inasmuch as 
all were subject to the same conditions, the facts portrayed 
indicate marked individual difference in the readiness with 
which a rhythmic pace can be imitated* 

fhe records of the adult subjects were analysed and com¬ 
pared for evidence of correlation between the variation in 
the time spent at rest and the per cent of the total stroke 
spent at rest, fhe rank tabulation and computation are shown 
in fable 6 of the Appendix by which the following coefficients 
of correlation were found, the Pearson method by grades being 
used. 

Table 10 

Coefficient of Correlation between Variation in heat 
Period and Per Cent of Total Period Spent at .vest 

Spontaneous Imposed 

Finger Movement -.§91 £,085 -.402 £.115 

Arm Movement -.573 £.092 -.041 

Only the record made with arm movement under conditions 
of imposed rhythm fails to show any correlation, while the 
ratios for the Parts A # B, and 0 show marked evidence of 
negative correlation between the two elements* 

Aeducing the amount of time spent on rest ie here accom¬ 

panied with an increase of variability in the time tslvea to 
the rest period, both when using finger end arm movement with 
spontaneous rhy t hm, also when following an imposed rhythm with 
finger movement but there ie no evidence of such a relationship 

when following the rhythm with the arm movement. It is natural 












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hi r- ■ ■■ , :■ VV . V ' ■•' ■.-,■■ •; ' «...■ , ,, ,. ^ ' 

*.!*: U- ■.' $ T,f&# ■»•: v $ Ifl 1 ‘j ■' •£ 

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60 


that the shorter the period within certain limits the less 
accurately its length could be judged and reproduced, but just 
whet significance this fact would hare to the writing process 
is uncertain* It is however noteworthy that the imposed rhythm 
introduces such a disturbance into the relations which nor¬ 
mally obtain, especially when the arm movement is being used* 
Ability to follow the rhythmic duide: 

It has been noted (p* 48 } that the individual deviations 
from the metronome beat have been computed and sbo* in fable 
4 of the Appendix* the method by which these measures were 
computed and their significance ms presented previously 
(p* 33 j. A imismary table follows which shows the percentage 
of deviation of each group, on the average,from the incidence 
of the beat* 

Table 10 

(Percentage of deviation from the Incidunce of the Beat) 




finger 

Arm 

Adults 

Better Writers 

11* if 

14. £ 

Poorer «r iters 

16*3 

£4.6 


Average 

13*9 

18.9 

Child 

Young Children 

£3*1 

££.9 

Older Children 

I£*6 

17.1 


Average 

17.6 

£0. 


Co .par is on of the various groups as to their behavior in 
this respect is aided by diagram 5., which represents the data 
of the above tabulation graphically* Exc ept in the case of 

* 

the younger children wo remain oulte constant in their record , 
all groups tend to deviate far ther from the b ea t with the use 
of the arm movement than with the use of finger movement. the 











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■ 'iij. ;, _ J . - . ) a; t - f r 3 fl : r ; ln*. JL?XI 2 BWL 4 fit 




POOR BOULTS 
YOUNG CHILDREN 


OLDER CHILDREN 

Better poults 


Dtag, J Comparison of C/iiid and fldu/t 
Groups as to their Average PerCent Devia¬ 
tion from the Incidence of the Beat in 
following an Imposed Rhythm. 




























61 


igroup. of po o rer adult writers differing moat markedly of all * 

Thv better writers of the adult groups show clearly their 
superiority In respect to smaller deviation in both finger and 
am movement while the older child group has a record not 


Diagram 5. Comparison of Child and Adult iroup© as to their 
Average Per Cent Deviation from Incidence of the 
Best in following an Imposed Ahytbm. 


greatly different from this superior group, fhe poorer adult 
writers, though showing appreciably less deviation than the 
younger children when using finger movement esdsibit greater 
deviation than the younger children when using arm movement. 

Here we find then that the better writers and the older chil¬ 
dren. who for the most part have alre ady developed good penman^ 
ship habits, are able to adapt themselv es to the rhythmic beat 
with greater accuracy than the poor adult writers or yo unger 

children. 

A survey of the Individual records, stroke by stroke, 
shows that the greater deviation of the younger child and poor* 
er adult writers is due to ext re me lagging behind the beat. 

Although the other two groups ©how a tendency to lag at times, 
the deviation is not so large and is accumulated by small 
ositive and negative deviations, in which the subject gradually 
accelerates to a point where he is in advance of the beat, then 
gradually retards to a lower limit of lagging, then repeats the 
process* £© have already noted (F.13) Dunlap*s findings in 
which he discovered a tendency to drift away from the imposed 
beat, then to drift back again* fhere are more among the older 






















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62 


GhiXd group than in any other group that tend to show deviation 
due to accelerating their movement beyond the rate of the 
imposed rhythm, they have formed rhythmic habits faster than 
the beat Imposed, and tend constantly to give way to them but 
are restrained by the beat from doing bo. 

MS cu shion AhJ oomwisims 

It will be valuable to note in summary the findings of 
the preceding experiment which apply to the field of handwrit¬ 
ing, to indicate the ways in which they may be of significance* 
and to compare them briefly vnth a view to discovering solu¬ 
tions to problems, as well as to suggest other problems which 
may be involved. 

fhe results show a clear differentiation, in most cases, 
between the various groups selected as subjects* it may be 
possible that some significant elements of the data have been 
overlooked, and that real differences exist even where the 
reliability of difference© as found in this experiment has been 
low. i’he inference is justified that the reliable difference© 
found are a concomitant, and probably a resultant, of the known 
distinctive differences in the subjects. 

Of the four groups only one is made up of matured writers 
who exhibit a generally high quality of penmanship. But most 
of the older children are good writers, being well trained in 
the public schools in a standard system of penssa&ahlp instruc¬ 
tion* In only two of this group is there found any marked lac*, 
of coordination* fhe adults who compose the group of poorer 



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writers and the yoc mger children are definitely poor penmen, 
shoeing either a noticeable lack of coordination, or deforma¬ 
tion of letter forme, or both in most cases* 

The good and poor writers are not clearly distinct in 
their degree of variation from an average duration,alt hough 
the superior adult group ranks as having slightly the lovest 
degreeof variation* fhe older child group , which is undoubted¬ 
ly superior in renmanship ability to the poorer adult mr item, 
shows itself of lower rank in the sense of exhibiting generally 
a less rhythmical behavior* It is true that the younger e.ild 
group is differentiated as to variation from the other groups, 
but this fact would harmonize with the supposition that the 
rhythmic ability is not primarily a correlate of good _ enman- 
ehip, at least in the simple temporal sense in which rhythm is 
here used, but rather an independent factor hich is a matter 
of habituation, and which is attained more fully with age 
maturity* 

Some children among the younger group ©how unusual rhyth¬ 
mic ability* For example , the child aged 10 year© 8 months 
(fable 4- Appendix) is more rhythmical on the average than the 
group of better writers as a whole* It is notable that, at 
about the age of 11 years, there seems to be a more numerou s 

grouping of those who show more rhythmical ability than is the 

case among younger subjects* fhir fact agrees with that al¬ 
ready noted by Freeman and Butt ( p* 14 ) also cears (p*13 j* 

The most significant differences between the /cod and 
poor writers seem s to lie in certain other e l e ments especially . 













64 


These are ED readiness of adaptation to an imposed rhythm 
with both finder and arm movement» and (B) the accuracy with 

which the Imposed best la followed* 

V ith regard to the first point it was noted (p, ,46 i 
that ail groups are affected in the increase of the proportion 
of time spent at rest by the imposition of rhythm but that the 
better writers, in contrast to the other groups, were influenc¬ 
ed to an equal degree when using finger and arm movement. The 
record of the group of poorer adult writers was quite child¬ 
like in character, sot only showing & greater tendency toward 
increase of duration of rest period when imposed rhythm was 
used than was true of the better writers, mt also being more 
greatly influenced when using finger movement than «hen using 
arm movement. 

In the second element indicated it is again noteworthy 
that the two poor penmanship groups approximate. Both deviate 
to a greater extent than the good writers fro?* the incidence 
of the beat, especially when arm movement is used. There 
seems to be a lack of ready adaptability in these groups 
which makes it difficult for them to follow any set rhythm. 
There may be totally different reasons in the case of the two 
groups for their common lack of adaptation. It is possible 
that the difficulty in the case of the children ie chiefly 
the lack of motor control which is necessary to effect syn¬ 
chronisation, while the elder group may have become so 
habituated in their particular used unit of rhythm that they 
find it difficult to change. 






■ 

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Bat whatever may be the reason, the better writers are 
more nearly able to follow the imposed beat accurately with 
both finger and arm movement and this may be ascribed to the 
superior motor control* fo what an extent practise in follow¬ 
ing such & beat might prove Instrumental in building up motor 
control, and hence improving % enmanship ability, is problema¬ 
tical. It is possible that the lack of adaptability in this 
respect is irremediable* It is also possible that this fact 
is merely a symptom of an underlying difficulty which mnet 
first receive direct attention and improvement. 

The comparison of the behavior of the subjects with finger 
and arm movement is timely in its relationship to penmanahip 
instruction* In the case of all groups where arm movement 
ms used, the imposition of a rhythm results in a greater 
degree of variation than when the movement was spontaneous. 

The same thing is true of the adults also when finger movement 
is used, but, in this case, the children show a markedly 
greater degree of rhythm, in other words the setting of an 
artificial rhythm as a uide is. in the case of adults« a 

hindrance to rhythmic functioning: also for children whe n 
making use of arm movement» though the latter are aided by it 
when using finger movement* 

fhis is probably due, as has been pointed out (pp. 53-4 ), 

to the fact that adults have fixed rhythmic controls with both 
finger and arm movement, and that children early manifest such 
rhythmic abilities in the use of arm movement, though quite 
tardy in the acquisition of rhythmic abilities with finger 
movement, fhie explanation is not in full harmony with the 









- '- r d70%'i :ii W*l iKCt 9 £&"iH*rn 

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JP*34:r s-aX* j#& *, > riM %q -i ^oJLSl ««*>: &4f 

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,/::v..v^ » to ., .sr ©*i4 at &isxUfit 





66 


findings of Uutt ( "Ehythrn in £andwriting”.*p* 436 } who notes 

the slow development of arm movement: but the cases are quite 
different* In connection with this experiment the kinaesthe- 
tic impulse to rhythm is much more readily appreciated in gross 
bodily movements than in the finer adjustments, in which a 
special act of willmust operate so as to inhibit the gross 
movements and gradually select the small motor agents* fhe 
child* s rhythmic ability is probably not so much an acquired 
habit of facile control such as occurs in the adult, as it is 
a fundamental physiological tendency* A further contributing 
factor may be the essentially distinctive character of the arm 
considered as a lever or pendulum* possessing quite different 
elements of mass and inertia than the finger* and consequently 
more disposed to rhythmical swinging movement* yet more diffi¬ 
cult in ready adaptation* 

It is noteworthy that the group of older children, who 
have been trained well in free arm movement, show little 
different iation from the younger children in the degree of 
variation in the total period \^hile using finger movement, and 
that both are greatly aided in the attainment of rhythm with 
the use of the fingers, by the imposition of rhythmic stimulus* 
!Thls fact would suggest that, if the acquirement of rhythmic 
control with both finger and arm movement is desirable, chil¬ 
dren should be drilled with finger movement as well as ana 
movement that such control might be gained as early as possible. 

It Is possible and indeed probable that rhythmic control 
in the sense of ability to attain a natural temporal regularity, 
is probably of no great significance lor good penmanship* But 




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a? 


the same finger-arm relationship holds true when the effect 
of imposed rhythm upon the amount of time spent at rest is 
considered, fhe poorer writers of both the child and auult 
groups, also to a smaller extent, the older child group, show 
a more appreciable difference from the record of the natural 
rhythm, when using finger movement than when using arm move¬ 
ment. This indicate® a lack of habituation in the finger 
control as compared with arm control, and the consequent 
tendency to he more greatly influenced by the dietractive fac¬ 
tor of the artificial rhythm when using the finger than when 
using the arm. i’he group of better writers, on the other hand, 
a pear to have control of both finger and arm movement ot an 
equal degree, inasmuch as both are equally influenced by the 
beat. 

Th® extent to which the use of imposed rhythm with arm 
movement broke up the relation® which normally obtain between 
groups (pp* 59-61) is a further indication of the fact that 
the arm does not yield as readily to the imposed beat. In 
general the use of mm movement tends to a more definite 
temporal rhythmic control. Only when the rhythm is artifi¬ 
cially set docs the rhythmic control by the arm suffer a loo®, 
especially noticeable in the case of children. 

the accuracy with which the imposed beat is followed by 
the various groups (p*61 ) reveals a clear differentiation 
between the results far finger and arm movement. In all cases, 
except that of the younger children, the deviation is greater 
with arm movement, fhe younger children exhibit a lack of 


. 

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ready control of the finger movement especially and the poorer 
adult writers in addition shew a marked deficiency in arm 
control sufficient to follow the imposed rhythm accurately* 
Hence* from the point of view of these facts one is led again 
to the hypothesis that either the arm movement habits or the 
essential inertia of the arm movement affects the subjects 
unfavorably in their taking on an imposed rhythm, ae compared 
with the finger* The younger children here also show charac¬ 
teristic deficiency of control with the finger movement* 

wumm cmc lusioaa 

1* The ability to execute movements in a simple time rhythm 
does not stand in any appreciable correlation with good 
penmanship# The natural rhythmic performance of indivi¬ 
duals is rather a correlate of maturity* manifesting 
itself Quite early in some cases* and attaining a compara¬ 
tively high degree of regularity by the time of adolescence# 
2# The ability to follow an imposed rhythm closely is charac¬ 
teristic of the good writers# Poor writers are deficient 
in this respect. 

£• fhe poorer writers and younger children tend to lag behind 
an imposed beat* while the better writers and older children 
have the.ability to anticipate the beat# 

4. The imposition of rhythm tends to increase the proportionate 
amount of time spent attest thus slowing down the movement 
as the stroke remains fairly constant in duration* 

5* fhe imposition of rhythm does not immediately aid in the 
securing of a more exact time rhythm except with those who 
have no fixed habits of natural rhythm or who are using 





motor agents which hare not yet been brought under control. 

6. Children spend a greater proportionate time at rest than 
do the adults, the strode being accomplished nearly as 
quickly as in the case of adults. 

7. In general, the total stroke is recognised as the unit of 
movement, and a n such receives the rhythmic ©aphasia to a 
far greater extent than is the case with either the rest or 
period of mo nrement. 

8. The use of arm movement seems to be more favorable to rhyth¬ 
mic movement in the case of adults than does finger movement, 
although this tendency is negatived when an imposed rhythm 

is followed. 

9. Less time is given to rest proportionately when are move 
meat is used than when finger movement is used, showing 
that the arm either has a more immediate initiatory control 
or that it is lees rapid in movement, at least in this 
type of stroke. 

10. fhe better writers show in general less differentiation 
between the records of finger and arm movement than do 
the poorer writers. 

11. The better writers exhibit a better control of both finger 
and arm movement in the adaptation to imposed rhythm. 

IE.The finger movement is brought under control at a later 
period than the arm in the child*s development. 



PA&? m&M% 

A He* Ketfeod for the Meroaetri© Inroe* 
tlgation of the Handwriting Process and 
Product and a Stud^ of fjrpioal results 
with th© Une of this rethod with a ?iew 
to noting and Defining Some of the ,le~ 
monte of lime and Organisation Involved. 



71 


Previous Methods of Pleasuring the Changes of Inner Speed s 

The need of arriving at a detailed and accurate measure 
of the inner speed of handwriting has already seen noted (p.4j. 
Several different methods have been used with varying degrees 
of success* They will he briefly summarised here so that 
the reader may have an inclusive view of the steps in the 
development of method leading to the one herein designed and 
described* 

In 189k Binet and Courtier described { 1 ) experiments 
in handwriting in which the ndieon stylus pen was used* This 
instrument* originally designed for us with mimeograph sten¬ 
cils, was §uite heavy, containing at one end a small motor 
which operated a cam so as to cause a plunger point at the 
writing end to alternately project and be withdrawn, piercing 
the writing surface about each 17th of a second* It was 
noted that as the instrument was drawn across the page in a 
stroke movement the perforations nade were farther apart at 
the middle of the strode and hunching at the ends, indicating 
greater speed of movement at the mid-portion of the strode. 

The weight of the stylus, the friction incident to the point 
perforating the surface, the coarseness of the measure, the 
vibration of the instrument, etc*, prevented any' accurate, 
detailed study of actual writing movements, yet the findings 
revealed the value and need of further analysis. 

Jack reported (4) in 189S the use of a distinctly differ¬ 
ent method of analysis, one which yielded more accurate re¬ 
sults for certain types of strokes. A coatedgiass plate was 
fixed at the end of a vibrating fork in such a way that the 





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writer could readily writ© upon it* vfaile the fork was in 
motion the subject would sake a stroke upon the surface with 

a pointed Instrument; the tracing of the stroke being clearly 
shorn by the removal of the coated surface* If the direction 
of the stroke were transverse to the vibration, the tracing 
would appear as a uavlrg line* It was found that successive 
waves were gradually more compressed toward the beginning and 
end of the strokes, and farther apart in the middle, showing 
conclusively that the speed increased at the middle of the 
stroke and slowed down at its terminus and initial ion* But 
although the conditions were quite normal as to friction and 
the use of a writing instrument, and the measurements in 
general quite accurate, the method was not applicable to the 
study of curved stroke© such as occur in writing, or to the 
analysis of the more minute strokes incident to penmanship* 

McAllister i 6} reported several studies in 1^00 in which 
he made use of a method having some points in common with 
that used by Binet and Courtier* the subject wrote on a aoot- 
co&ted metal plate with a ©harp pointed stylus# fhis stylus 
ms in circuit with an electric current through the metal 
plate, this current being broken and established about ©very 
16th of a second* It the Instant when the current ms estab¬ 
lished a ©mall ©park ms made at the point of contact of the 
stylus with the net el plate* spark registered itself 

by the removal >£ a speck of soot from the coating of the 
writing surface* Similar results were secured a© by previous 
methods* However, except for lack of friction and greater 
lightness of the writing implement, the method had no great 
advantage over some methods previously used, either as to 


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naturalness of conditions* or accuracy of results for de¬ 
tailed study 

A great advance la the technique of methods was attempt- 
ed by Freeman ( 2), who Reseated the results of an investi¬ 
gation in which he cad© use of a specially designed apparatus 
enabling him to make a detailed study with great accuracy. 

The subject wrote while seated at a table in the ordinary 
manner. Underneath the sheet on which the writing was done 
was a wide inked ribbon* and just below that a wide strip of 
paper moving from right to left* The tracing of the writing 
was received upon this strip* not in legible f cam* but in a 
laterally extended Hnc* so that a straight line drawn per¬ 
pendicular to the line of writing would be traced as a com¬ 
plex curved line running from the left downward and toward 
the right* showing evidence of slow speed at the beginning 
and enu of the stroke* and of competitively rapid speed at 
the middle. The am rapid the speed the more the inclina¬ 
tion of toe tracing would tend toward the vertical. 

Exeat time computation was gotten through the medium of 
a time marker which recorded its measure of one tenth of a 
second continuously on the margin of the moving strip. An¬ 
alysis of the records was made quite arduously* tut with a 
hi gh degree of accuracy* by a careful measuring off of suc¬ 
cessive equal lengths of the line of writing (the exact path 
of the pinpoint i* noting the vertical placement of their 
limits in the tracing arxl the units of liras taken to each m 
indicated by the horizontal distance on the time scale be- 



74 


tween these point©* By this method exact analysis of the 
Inner speed could be made to quite a degree of detail* but 
the method was not adapted to the study of smaller forms as 
used in pexszwasiilp* and the building up of a speed curve must 
of necessity be very painstaking* However, the method of- 
fared the first satisfactory means of a study of inner speed 
relation©* 

Photography was introduced into the study of penmanship 
by Froeoan (5) who made use of motion pictures. This method 
woo chiefly valuable in the study of the movement© of the am, 
fciand ana finger as used la tbs hands riling process, but made 
available also an analysis of innor speed relations in the 
following way. The individual negatives sere imaged aa© at 
a time in enlarged form by being projected on a scrota. Such 
an image was projected and the position of the pinpoint noted, 
as well as the position of the arm and fingers* The neat 
one of the series would then be projected, and the position 
of the pinpoint would again be noted on the same screen sur¬ 
face. The process wauls be continued in this manner through¬ 
out the written passage. The distances between successive 
positions of the penpoiat sere then measured and speed curves 
constructed. The time intervals between successive images 
was about one twenty-fifth of a second. The method did not 
yield absolutely accurate results because of the inability 
to definitely indicate the exact position of the peapoint la 
the projected image due to the diffusion of light* 


' 

\ • •"! • ?v- i-i ;«1* 


75 


The writer acknowledges his iixiebtedneao to the design¬ 
ers of all of these methods, nearly all of which nave contri¬ 
buted Items of method, both desirable and feasible, in the 
construction, of the ap t aratus used by him and described in 
th© following pages. 


!• Olnet, A* and Courtier, Sur la Vitesse dee Movements 

Graphlques; llevuc Philosophic*!©, 
1893, 55; 664-71. 

2. Freeman, F*!i. An Experimental Ltudy of Handwriting: 

Psych* Konog. 1514, #75. 

3. FreoGiaa, P.H* The Handwriting lovemeat, rduc* -on. 11, 

#3, Aug. 1918. 

4* Jack, W»a* The Analysis of Voluntary Muscular Movements 
by Certain Hew Instruments♦ Journal of 
Anal, and Physiol., 1895, 29: 475-9. 

5* JSoAUlster, C.ti* Eesemrehes on Movements Used In riting* 
Studies from Vale Psych. Lab., 1900; 

8: 21-63. 


Description of Apparatus . 

In nearly all methods, thus far successfully used in 
measuring th© rat© of motion of the penpoint in handwriting 
movements, there has been an attempt to locate certain points 
in the actual traced line of writing which arc variable as 
to their distance from each other, hut related by a constant 
seal© of time, so that the bunching of points would indicate 
a doorcase of speed, and their separation an increase. ^ 

The method used in this investigation has been devised in 
line with the samo principle. The special apparatus employed 
may bo considered in two groupings: (1) that which was neces¬ 
sary for the making of a record, and (2) for the measuring of 
a record. 

to) An exception occurs la the case of the first method 
used by Freeman, as noted in the preceding section {p. 73 ) 
in wolch the units of distance over which the pen passed w ere 
regarded as constants ana the time units as variables. 






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The Becoming Apparatus 

bimply stated the method for which the apparatus was 
specially adapted consisted of photographing the point of 
the pen at regularly timed Instants with a vies* to noting 
the relative distance through which it passed during the 
intermediate intervals* 

In order to photograph the point of the pen alone it 
was found necessary to isolate it* This was effected by 
an intensification of the point of the poo so that it would 
photograph easily; at the same time all other* objects in 
the photographic field-were subdued ao that the image of 
the pinpoint alone would be recorded on the negative. The 
intensification of the point of the pen was obtained by Si?* 
luminating a ball reflector attached to it* Tim room was 
darkened and the photographic field flooded with a reddish 
light so as to neutralise the actinic properties of all 
light rays save those reflecting fro® the ball. The source 
of illumination of the reflector was an electric arc light. 

An electric-motivated tuning fork which cut the rays of light 
passing bo tween the arc and the reflector provided the con¬ 
stant scale of time* corresponding to its vibrations, so 
that during each unit of time, the ball would be illuminated 
for approximately one-half of the unit, then shut off from the 
light for an equal period* A specially devised camera ©as 
placed in a position vertically above the photographic field, 
so that, as the pen was held in writing position within the 






FtG. J ~ Cross Sect/on Lateral V/ew — show/ng general arrangement of photograrr/c apparatus 
























































- 








* 






























































77 


field, the ray of light reflecting from the ball eoulcl be 
imaged upon the film in the camera. Is the pen was moved 
about in the writing plane the path of movement ima photo* 
graphically recorded as a series of dashes of different 
lengths, varying as the rate of motion, bat each correspond** 
tag in time to the absolute period of the illumination of 
the ball in each position. 

The detailed plan of the apparatus is essential to a 
proper uaa era tending of the method employed. In Figure 3 
is shown a cross-section diagram of the apparatus which re¬ 
veals the relative position of the various essential parts. 


Figure 3* 

* General Arrangement of Apparatus 


A * Electric arc light 

B» Condensing lens 

€* bereea with adjustment for apertures of various 
si zou to permit the definition of the light rays. 

P* Vibrating fork placed at the point of fucus of 
light rays* 

L* screen interposed to limit the rays vertically 
and horizontally* 

E* Condensing Ions used to bring the rays into par¬ 
allel relation 

F* bereea to define tho light rays passing above the 
surface of the table 

G* Table on which handwriting is done 

h* holder used to fasten sheet of paper to the ear- 
face of the table and to prevent illumination of 
the paper surface 

H* Bad light flooding the surface of the table 

s» screen placed between the red light and tho cam¬ 
era lenses 

1* lovable screen placed between the camera arid the 
writing surface 

X & ¥• Cameras used in photographing 






F/G. 4 - Cross Sect/om i/iev of Cameras - show/ag construct/oh and method of threading f/lm 












































73 


The tuning fork (X>) was standardised at 50 vibrations per 
second. The earners (X~Y} is represented in detail in 
Figure 4. It was la reality a double camera, being made 


Figure 4* Special Camera Gross section * Lateral Vies 


up of two cameras (X) and (Y) which were identical in shape, 
else and general construction* Their functions were, i»o- 
ever, slightly different. The samara (Y) was designed to 
take ordinary stationary photographs which would reproduce 
the exact path of the penpoint in miniature. 8ut it Is 

evident that, where line© made in writing coincided, th© 
dashes in the photographic record would be inextricably In¬ 
termixed (see pm 88}; also a period of rest of the pen at 
any point would be evidenced in the record only by a dot of 
greater or less intensity with no indication of time spent* 
To obviate these difficulties the special camera (1} was 
devised in which the photographic film was kept in steady 
emotion at th© rat© of about 1 inch per second during th© 
period of exposure. Moving across the focal area parallel 
with th© general direction of the writing and opposite to 
it, th© record produced represented a stretching out of th© 
path of the penpoint, in the ssn* manner as the tracing used 
by Freeman (p*73 ), aad not only differentiated all strokes 
clearly, but indicated the amount of time spent at rests* 
























































































. 























































79 


Since it was necessary that both cameras should bear 
upon the asm© field, the lenses (ee) were placed m sear 
together as possible at the inner extreme ties of the earners 
floors* .A sores adjustment at (J) permitted a variation 
in the direction of the lenses. Th© cameras were solidly 
fixed in position (see Fig* 3/ directly above the field 
(c-*U approximately seven inches square on the surface of 
the table (0) ami at a focal distance of about 20 inches* 

Both cameras sore similarly threaded idth standard 
motion picture film in very ouch the same way as soy motion 
picture earners, automatic winding and tension devices being 
provided. The essential difference in the tiro cameras was 
the provision for the motive power in tuning the sprockets 
and moving the film. In the camera (Y) a handle (c«, Fig. 

4) w®& attached to the axis of the sprocket so that it could 
bo turned at will for long or abort distances. In the case 
of oaiuera (X) mowever, the axis of the sprocket was connected 
with an electric factor by bolt and gear as shown in Figure 
5, which gives a blrdseya view of the connections* The 
lover (hi was placed so that the operator could start the move¬ 
ment of the film toy tore log contact of the cam (P) with the 
friction gear (T i, the shafting (S) being in constant motion* 


Figure 5* Camera and Gear connections 


Superior View 









F/q. 6. Placement of Taqle, Writer and 
Writing Surface with Reference to 
the Light Rats and the Cameras 



F/g J • Method of Attaching Reflecting 
Ball to the Writing Implement. 





























































































80 


m. Hotor 
S. Pulley 

B. Pulley attached to cam P 
r. Cais turning on the shaft (b) 

T* Friction gear attached to shaft (3) 

L* Lever to control the gear coat act 

The table was set at an angle of about 60° to the di¬ 
rection of the light rays |a~b) as shown la Figure 6, shich 
gives an overhead view* IMt was done to accommodate the 


Figure fc. Position of Writer and Paper in Relation to 
Light Hays* - buporior View 


writer, who, when sitting in the position (f}, would he in 
the host recognised relation to the writing surface (F), 
with left forearm rooting <L) on the table and right fore¬ 
arm (K ) perpendicular to the line of writing. The paper 
was fixed in position so as to cover the photographic field 
Ccefd) and the writing done within the more limited area 
(e ? o*f’d 1 ) shore the light rays were moot intense. The 
writing surface could he shifted as desired lighting the 
holding strip (H). 

In Figure 7 is shown the placement of the reflecting 
ball on the pen. The ball (i ) which was of nickeled steal 


Figure 7. Reflector Attachment to fen 


was flattened on the under side so as to prevent downward 






' 

■I'J -tc >fri ~ ' JriaJL 





radiation of reflecting rays and bring the center of the ro¬ 
tation of the bail as near m possible to the axis of the pen, 
and a as fixed to the extremity of a email wire ($}• A spring 
band CO, another view of which is shorn in the small figure 
(GjJ, which -could be attached firmly to any ordinary writing 
instrument, had soldered to it the small spring (£) under 
which the wire (0) could be placed securely in any desired 
position* than a record was made it was essential that the 
ball reflector should be adjusted so that it would be just 
over the pinpoint as viewed from above* These adjustable 
features enabled the subject to use his own pen or pencil, 
or select one which would give most suitable service* k 
fountain pen was generally used because of the greater con¬ 
venience la Inking the pen point. To prevent diffusion of 
light, all metal parte, including the pinpoint, except the 
nickeled ball, were enameled with a dull black coat* 

bo that the subject would have sufficient illumination 
to prevent his writing under unnatural concitioas In a dark¬ 
ened room, an ©range colored lamp (B, Fig. 5} was placed so 
that its rays would be directed over the surface of the table* 
It was found that a light strong enough to make the linos 
and writing on the paper clearly visible to the subject could 
be used without danger of impressing the film. 

An index device was provided, consisting of a wedge- 
shaped block with blackened surface, and small pieces of 
whit® cardboard on each of which was printed a letter or 
figure. The block was placed flat on the table within the 




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. K- • tr>mXp «ft 1 * X - 

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photographic f leld, with the thin edge toward the source of 
light, the letters or figures desired were placed upon it and 
exposed to the films for a second* The films were now turned 
ahead about an inch, and the record made. The written record 
was similarly indexed for convenient reference. 

Two small tacks, with reflecting hall hearings attached 
to the heads were stuck into the writing paper just above 
the line of writing and about three inches apart, care being 
taken not to put them in direct line with each other. The so 
were recorded on the stationary film as two dots, and on the 
moving film as two straight lines of dashes, and served as 
guides in the later analysis of the records, especially in 
superimposing the image of the moving film upon the tracing 
of the stationary film* (p*89 )* 

Electric switches were conveniently placed so that the 
experimenter, standing back of, and to the right, of the sub¬ 
ject, could control the lighting of the red light (R, Fig. 5), 
the starting and stopping of the electric isoior (!£, Fig* S}» 
and the general illumination of the roosu The lever CL, Fig* 
5), which controlled the connection of the gear for the mov¬ 
ing film and handle connected with the screen (£, Fig* 3}, 
were within easy reach. 

In summary the steps la recording were as follows: Cl) 
Threading of the cameras. (2 ) Turning on the arc light. 

(3) Darkening of the room. (4) darting the tuning fork. 

(5) Testing of the light ray© far brightness and place and 
adjustment of the vibrating fork. (6) Indexing of the re- 



53 


cord to be photographed* (?) Turning on of the red light# 

(6) bubjeet practises* {9} Sow writing surface placed in 
position and bail bearing guides fixed in position upon it* 
(10) Uibjoet told exactly shat he was to write and given 
order to start* (11) iben the subject reached that part 
of the exercise decided upon for record the handle (P* I lg. 

5) and the lever (L* Fig# 5) were simultaneously operated 
so as to expose the photographic field and start t he moving 
film. (12) £ f hen the essential part of the exercise had 
hem covered the handle and lever were brought back Into 
normal position* the subject told to stop and the lenses 
were recapped# (15) In case more than one exercise was de¬ 
sired from the one subject* the films were wound along and 
a new index made* and the process repeated# 

IJuch preliminary operation was necessary before the 
many variable factors in the apparatus and method could be 
standardized so as to give satisfactory results# This was 
finally accomplished by isolating them and dealing with them 
singly or in combination until proper conditions were ob¬ 
tained# Pmms these variables may be mentioned such things 
as the source of illumination, size of apertures* the vi¬ 
brating fork, the lenses, etc* 

The developing of the film required a great deal of care 
but none which a fairly well trained photographer could not 
meet satisfactorily* So positive film was made* not merely 
as a measure of economy* but because the negative film as 
projected gave a clear* definite Image with little diffusion 
of light and with good general Illumination of the screen# 



. 























































The Measuring Apparatus 


The iMbftsto for mem suriag the records «e© designod 
to so magnify the photographed togas that they could ho sue* 
cea^fully analyzed and studied in detail* Any port of the 
stationary or moving files record, or the original writing, 
could be Imaged upon a large screen by the use of project©- 
scopes and could be isanipulated at sill, m the observer 
could make a thorough comparative study of the records# 

She superior vice diagram given In figure 8 shorn toe 
placement of the various parts of the apparatus in relation 

Figure 8* i lum of apparatus for projecting Images for 
measurement 


t 

to each other, though the relative distance of the screen 
from the proj©otoscopes is much greater than her© indicated* 
Two proJ©otoscopes were used; one (A) for stationary, and 
the other iB) for the moving film* Bitrogea electric bulbs 
of from MO to 1000 c*p* were used* Both pro j ©otoscopes were 
placed so that the projected lunges would fall upon the large 
smm (C), cot at a fixed distance* There ms a slight 
horizontal distortion of Images due to the fact that all 
lights could cot be placed in the sain© angular relation to 
the screen* But this was of small amount, and was easily 
cared for by a turning of the screen* Special holders (E 






. 

. 

■ 

~4 Maf»| 

w. *•- ^ -_: ... 







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3 ••' * f -* ■ ■ "&."■} V«. - i#J. . ; . 



























35 




and P) were designed to keep the respective films in posi¬ 
tion for projection. The stationary film was held by a 
spring between two glass plates <1). The holder (P ) for 
the mowing film. ms in the form of a cax*rlag© (G) through 
which the film coaid bo moved as it was unwound from spool 
Cai anti wound up on spool (bj* A groove in th© holder per¬ 
mitted no lateral nmm&nt of the film. The spools holding 
the film (a) ami (b) sore provided with fixed pulleys around 
which the belt (x) passed. This belt also engaged the pul¬ 
ley (o) fixed upon the pulley (f). The long belt (y) extend¬ 
ed from this pulley to pulley (g) which was placed to th© 
right of the screen (C>* so that the film could be moved 
forward or backward by the operator while seated mnr tins 
©croon* The carriage (Q) was adjustable to any position 
desired* 

A screen CO) placed between and to the frost of tbo 
proj otoscopes was mmmg on a pivot so that it could be used 
to shut off the rays from either proj©otoscope or alioti both 
to project images coincidentally os the mm field, (note 
the dotted arc indicating the path of this screen and its 
three possible positions (r, s, t). 

A reflectoscope (r) was placed in frost of and below 
the level of the project ©scopes in ouch a position that the 
Image of the original writing as projected oa the screen (C ) 
coincided with that of the corresponding stationary photo¬ 
graph as projected by the lantern <;)* 


, • ■. 

. 

. 



86 


The screen CO) was so constructed and attached to its 
vertical frame that it could be raised and lowered, moved 
sideways in cither direction, or set at any slant, thus per¬ 
mitting the superposition of the tracing of any image upon 
the projection of the image as desired* (Sec below). 

The Technique of tealysl m B oc ards * 

The process of measuring and studying the records in¬ 
volved the human element to a greater extent than the making 
of the records which depended for success largely on the or¬ 
dered operation of mechanical agencies* Consequently the 
reliability of all measurements and conclusions was conditioned 
by the expertneas and constant carefulness of the observer* 

A large sheet of drawing paper was fixed upon the screen 
and a tracing made of the enlarged image of the original writing 
as it was projected by the reflectoscope in a darkened room. 

The stationary photographic record was then projected and made 
to approximately coincide with the tracing# The board screen 
was then moved about until the coincidence was complete* If 
there had been any serious turning of the ball reflector at 
the point of the pen, or any falsity in the assumption that 
the reflector, mo placed, would definitely trace the line of 
writing, it would have been evidenced by noticeable deflections 
in the coincidence of the lines of the two images* Such was 
not the case, however, in any of the records studied* 

The dashes, which could be clearly distinguished and dif¬ 
ferentiated In the Image, ae projected from the stationary 




















































• • • 


■ - 






















.... 






■V ■ . . . . ■} ' ■ 




















- 




* ‘ 






■: a. *■ \ 
































•• 



















































B B' B" 



Fi<*.9 - D/etehent Possible Limits or T/me Ihtervhls or 
.OZ seconds E.RCH //v THE Projected Imrqe . 


















































































































































8 ? 


film, were now Indicated b> marks drawn perpendicularly to 
the lias previously traced* The question m to wliere these 
srnvlm should be placed, so as to mat effectively Indicate 
the tlos periods of one-fiftlcth of a second, required some 
preliralnary investigation. lour location® naturally sug¬ 
gest themselves as Indicated la Figure 9i the beginnings of 

Figure 9* Different possible limits of measures for space 
Intervals of one-fiftieth of a second each 


the dashes, giving the measures CM 1 , &*-&% etc.}; the ends 
of the dashes, with the measures (B-B f , B f -8% etc.); the 
middle of the spaces between Use dashes, measured by <€-C # , 
C , -C”, etc*); and the middle of the dasiico (D«»D 1 , £*<■&% etc*). 
The latter wore selected as limits, sa experiment showed that 
these points could be fixed upon quite definitely as compared 
with the others, principally because the dash earns Into prom¬ 
inence and disappeared very gradually, especially whore the 
movement was rapid, so as to leave no definite edge, while 
it did exhibit rather clearly the point at which there wm 
the greatest degree of illumination. The measurement of sodo 
records was attempted by a combination of all the above men¬ 
tioned methods, but the results gave no more accurate record 
so as to Justify the extra labor Involved. 

The observer marked the midpoints of the dashes through** 
out that pax*t of the exhibit desired for study, placing a 









■ 

bGn$*q0H> m 11 h*zl% W J Ik 

xv 'Vl * ^ /, c 0 ■&!? . \& 

* .? >! ■ , f V ' V ‘ *' • - 

...■,"•; • * e& v.r- .• &40 So r si* . ■ sc; .’ v 1 





F~/G. /o - Re. PR. ESER TFT/ ON OF THE PROJECTED lMPC,E OF R SrPT/ONHRr F/LM 
Record ps Superimposed on the Trrc/nq of the Tfwqe of the IVr/t/rq . 
















• - 





































t - — & 

































bracket (x j opposite say portion where there was any confu¬ 
sion and intermingling of lines, aad also near those points 
where It was considered possible that the pinpoint hah eae® 
to a full stop. Figure 10 shows a greatly reduced copy of 
on exhibit at this stage of the marking process, and Includes 


figure 10* Projected imge of stationary film as superimposed 
on original tracing and Internals indicated 


the traced line of the original writing as written by Subject 
Bo* 1, the approximate outlines of the dashes, with the indi¬ 
cation of their midpoints where definitely discoverable, and 
some examples of Incompleteness in the record, as shown by 
the mark (x), due to confusion of lines, and uncertainty as 
to the exact position anc number of cashes. 

After a record had been transferred. In this manner the 
corresponding film containing the record nmde with the film 
in motion, was placed in Its carriage (G, Pig# 6), the stat¬ 
ing screen was turned so aa to shat off the ray® from the 
stationary film, the moving film was then wound on its spools 
until that part of the Imago which corresponded with the be¬ 
ginning of the stationary record being studied emm into view# 
In Figure 11 lo shown, a diagram view of the screen as it ap- 


FipPi 11* Method of using the mowing film. 









S7J/1 i/Jj A/J 3U/fl $U/AJUHJ(ZJ JO OOHIJU 
3HJ. OH* A/7/_J OtH/IOfr 3fit JO QHO03& 3MJ. JO JOtfUj QJAOjrO&d JO JONUVUJddl/ - // 


































































pears at inis stage. The letter m tf Is here being analyses.• 
The lotto? form Is clearly sbosu as traced from the refiecto* 
scopic projection on the drawing serf ace (A), and with the 
erosa-bars indicating the ala points of the clashes, as projected 
from the stationary Him. Faints (y) anti (a) are the loci 
of the guides as photographed on the stationary ilia. 

The moving film record appears Imaged upon the screen in 
the dotted waving lino te-f}, the identity of which is easily 
recognizable by the- vertical placement of its various elements. 
The up and down laovcmont© of tills line are found to correspond 
as to absolute height with the successive upward and downward 
strokes of the letter as imaged. The carriage containing 
the film, and the screen are adjusted at such an angle that 
the project qg images of the guide lines Cg-h) ana (k-1) coin¬ 
cide with the loci Cy) end {s} respectively* The operator, 
seated before the screen, am turned the pulley at his right 
so as to move the film back and forth m desired, in order 
to identify each dash and test the exactness of the location 
of the marks already placed, ear© bolus taken in all wvosieat* 
of the film, to so© that there mm no marked deflection of 
the guide lines from the locus points* Whenever, under these 
conditions, the midpoint of any dash in the image did not co¬ 
incide with the corresponding mark, the placement of the mark 
was tested, and, if need be, revised. 

The mark© were placed In the incomplete parts of the re¬ 
cord as follows; a long t-square (Bi, with an adjustable heal 
(C), was set at such an angle that, when it was placed against 


: . m' - .'i • -• - 

. 

. 

vV\*sr^ , ■ 'm/i'.-: i y4- - 

4 \ i \&k • 

■ 

. 

“"■l':-- • i- ."i ^i-3 ; ; iMl - :->&$« • V fi 

' *n:i. ^ l ■ - 't . I •- . 

- - - ~ $ v. ; (tt* r V t&Ji ■ m* . .- • J6* 

- • ...wv' / i i /, iJtMtf; ;,'i *., : \ ■ ' i f; J\ f fe* 

■ 

»*» * -.>4*$ ixii 

****•••' ••'• v ' '• v'. 1 , ... '•■ ,: • . . -. 

. tl <LOM US* 

■■■ ■ ' ■ *• ' ■ ■' * ' - ■ ■ V . •• .. ' .. .', . ■ - n-.. 


90 


the edge of the screen the blade extended parallel to the 
guide lines* The square was then brought Into position ©o 
that the edge rested at the raid point of a dash in that por¬ 
tion of the Imago that was In question, and a mark ms mode 
whore this .edge of the square crossed the traced line of 
writing. This process ms repeated until the blank spaces 
in the record were properly filled out. The correspondence 
of the silo point of cash (d) with the mark (e) is notable in 
figure 11* At points of suspected rest, as at the bottom 
of the second stroke on the ’’h*, the dashes were carefully 
identified, and the number which extended in a straight line 
in the image were counted, and this number (in this case 3) 
noted in a position near the (x)* 

The operation of marking the exact location of hashes 
was continued throughout the entire line of movement of the 
pen point without regard to the lifting of the pen from the 
page at the end of words, ©to* Whenever the pen was lifted 
so far as to prevent photographic record of the movement, due 
to taking the reflector ball out of the bath of the light 
rays, the amount of time spent could be computed by ecu Xing 
the nns&er of dashes In the guide lines which crossed the 
locus points as the film was wound slowly along to a point 
where the dashes reappeared. 

After the exhibit had boon completely marked according 
to the plan thus outlined, the record as placed on the draw¬ 
ing paper was ready for further analysis. The space© between 
the marks, designating the midpoints of the dashes, were first 


. 

- ' ' , • -■■■" ' 

* S’* .« ;V. ; : ,!*.:<:■<*£ - * ■>■: V ' • -.,--1 :^..U 

' 

p :4 •'•■; ■■ • v - ., vs ?rjij && - h* / . - :' , ‘ ■'- 

' .. Ui v: m ,. -tzoqtwj ' 10 ■ £ti ■ ■ 

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moa ? r $aa^ts c . -/Z -i '4 i. ■ -u-.xq 





91 




carefully numbered In order from the beginning to the end 
of the exhibit# At points of root allowance wm made for 
the imtsher of tta© spaces, which were evidenced, not in tent© 
of distance, tot la the number of dashes noted from the mov¬ 
ing film# 

The operator now measured these spaces in order In terras 
of ii&llimeters* Although various methods suggested tbea- 
selves and sere tried, such as the use of the compass, toe 
obaorver finally decided oa the use of a pliable strip of 
millimetric rule, which could bo laid along the Us© of any 
curve and toe measure could to road from it easily and cor¬ 
rectly at a glance. These measures were tabulated as shown 
in Table 11, whore a typical arrangement is given# f to ex¬ 

orcise "he” tore studied is divided into its seven natural 
strokes# In the second column are noted the tis» intervals, 
each one-fiftieth of a second long, in order; in to© third 
column toe speed is recorded, or the smistor of millimeters 
of the enlarged image which wore covered in each fiftieth of 
a second# The total length of each stroke is also noted 
for separative purposes# 



table 11* 

TalaOatioa of Ifimnres of the Exercise "he* «* Eecord Ho* 1 


stroke time Hate of stroke 
Ho# Inter* Speed Length 


I* 


XI* 


III* 


XV. 


1 S 


2 

12 

3 

27 

4 

2Si 

5 

30 

6 

30 

7 

24 

a 

13 

9 

-fit 

10 

3 

11 

10 

IS 

144 

15 

18 

14 

18 

IS 

21 

16 

23 

17 

21 

18 

IS 

19 

10 

SO 

S 

21 

** 

22 

— 

25 

a# 

24 

** 

25 

a 

26 

13 

27 

21 

28 

23 

28 

m 

50 

m 

51 

4 

m 

55 

54 

i 

55 

3 

56 

e 

57 

38 

a| 

59 

Jl 


179 f 


167§ 


101 


55i 


Ho. 

7. 


¥1* 


VII, 


Tine Hate of 

StK&B 

Inter* 

Speed 

Length 

40 

7 


41 

9 


42 

16 , 


43 



44 

Hi 


45 

14 


46 

11 


47 

s§ 


48 

4 


49 

3 

life! 

30 

4 


51 

5 


52 

8 


S3 

9 


54 

a§ 


55 

a 


56 

7jr 


57 

Of 


58 

% 

SB| 

59 

7| 


00 

13 


61 

21 


02 

27 


63 

30 


64 

22 


65 

16 


66 

ok 


67 

45 


as 

4 

164 i 

69 

3 

Total 




















I T* 

£\0 «\ 


iuut uf aiutys/fi 


































to most mmm tfee results were graphed for tbs direct 
observation of chalet eristics * In Diagram 0 is shown a 
graphic representation of the measurements given to Table 
XI* Xt should be li&©rprst€Ci to tbs foltot&ng maimer* 

Diagram ©♦ Speed Curve for writing word ^h®** 


to writing the word "fee* ibis subject required a total of 
stoty~ntoe fiftieths of a second* or 1*38 seconds# faring 
tm first fiftieth of s second observed, the pen traveled a 
dtotimee of a units* during the second fiftieth 12 units* 
a rising la speed to toe third interval to 27 units* to 
tbs fifth sad stoth intervals the writer attained a maa&smm 
speed of 50 units* and to the tenth period the rate of motion 
de crea se d to 5 units* after which earn© another increment of 
speed* i\t too end of the twentieth interval the pen mm 
to a point of rest and r^mined so for feer-fif^feths of a 
second* eta* etc. then these changes of speed arc related 
to the respective portions of the written form, they become 
more significant* The graphic eurv© of speed shows five 
principal humps* each corresponding to the five longest strokes 
used to writing the sard* wtiile the two shorter strokes are 
represented to the two tower irregular ta3ps« tHote tbs 
related strokes as iadiemied to heavy lines ho tow*} The 
root is am mm to occur at the end of the second stroke 
(down stroke) to "h”* 





, - 

% ' .• £;?:> >/. (-$■*. -.i -• • - ' •' ■••• • ■ - c ' 

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; 

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F/Cr.lZ 


- COEIPRRISOH OF SflRLL RND LRRGE IffRGES Of THE SAME RECORD PS PROJECTED 
From Distances of J m. Mpjr./m. respectively and Traced to Shoh/ Relative Sues- 
















* 














94 


The value of the speed curve, draws so as to connect 
the submits of the successive measures on the ordinates will 
be seen later in the process of Interpretation (i»e» see 
p* 101 ff.}• Acting on the assumption that there would 

generally be an even progress of movement in the changes 
from one speed to another, care was taken that the curve 
should be slightly rounded rather than angled at the points 
of change. The scale here shown, i.e», one unit on the 
abscissa for each fiftieth of a second, and one half unit 
on the ordinate for each unit of distance covered, was gen¬ 
erally adhered to in all analyses# The relative height 
of the scale was determined arlbtrarily, in view of the fact 
that this ratio seamed to be most favorable to interpretation# 
The measures which were made and thus represented, de¬ 
pended however on the absolute degree of enlargement of the 
projected image# The projection apparatus was first placed 
at a focal distance of about three rasters from the screen 
so as to give an enlargement of 39 diameters, and the image 
was marked, rxasasured, and the results graphed. hater a 
tost was made of the mam record at a focal distance of 5*1 
meters, giving an enlargement of 05 diameters from the film, 
or about 7*2 diameters from the original writing, the record 
being similarly analysed. The results were then compared 
(Figure 12) and (Diagram 7) and were found to give essentially 


Figure 12* Comparison of records a© projected and marked 
from different focal distances 





* ^ ■ • ■ ■- - 

Vso v ; ■ © . : W * : ^ 

> •• - • : . ; ... ■ ••• - • •• 

i * £ * 

• 

^..rrjrt) t ■ i ■ j , : *< • ^ . S Vo i 

.... •'■•...■• r - • ‘ - ' U • •’ 

: : * e . * ' : o. ■ 

. 

- .-.a om< ll .. iJL • '• ... •**-. 

* V • ^ ' ■ • ; < - 

i 

- ... ' • - • . 

' 

i 

' 

*Z£ ■: :■ « ' 

- ; .. • ■ 


.. 




UPPER CURVE - POCfiL DISTANCE « rn. 
Lower curve- « * = 3 rn. 



t y l y t S~ l y 


DiHO J. Comparisonof Speed Curves for Records of 

Fi <*■/£ - PROJECTED at D/FFFREFT FOCAL DISTANCES 













































* 








4 . ■ - • 





































m 


Diagram 7* Comparison of spoed curves of Becorda of fig¬ 
ure 12 


identical data, bat slue© the latter gave better opportun¬ 
ity for study aod exact m^surezsent the focal distance of 
5*1 motars was sag# tte standard. 

Tho reliability of Use steasurii^ process me scientifi¬ 
cally determined before m&j records mm analysed* or any 
results were quoted as authoritative. Two observers* 1*0# 
and iV; .* of whsm the latter was fairly acquainted with the 
technique* acted independently In mcasurlog and tabulating 
& record of large curved strokes* ft* recoil as traced 
and marked by the two observers Is shown in Figure 15* parts 
i and B respectively* 


Figure 13* Comparison of records as traced and marked for 
mmmm by different observer© - A by 0, B by F 


The measured results* as tabulated in Table 12* show a 
resaarkably small »aamt of variation. The total length of 
the written line was found by each to be 1550 $ * * so there 
was actually no variation la the total Erasure* However* 
there ms a total variation unit by unit* of 90 ^ {45 d plus 

*fbe unit of distance will henceforth be represented by the 
s^ssbol <p) and the unit of time by the- symbol ($)* the for¬ 
mer meaning a milljUsatcr oa the enlarged scale of the image 
and the latter meaning a fiftieth of a second* 









i 


v/ - mt&i •>.. mb1*i &* i K»jUfe$&t 

i- * •-• a . , its $ f . - 'SJ 

' ’ • 4 - •*'•• ■?£& • ■• r ifcJ, *S3 

* .. ;* . • *;;v... : : '.... ■" 


■ ! \ • ■'--. ■• * ■/■'• * - ■, «? ' .. : . • : • , ; *-, > .. 







/ 



Fig. JJ - Comparison of Tracings or the Sane Record bf Tivo 
Observers - Q.and W- Working Independently' 























































































96 


and 40 d minus) from each others records, mlch to 5*4$ of 
the total distance measured» Tills amounted to 1*? d for each 
30 d »hloh »as the average rate for each fiftieth of a second 
(d)»* The high coefficient of reliability of nearly 95$ 
marks a notable exactness of technique. It is noticeable that 
the variation ©as greatest in the longest spaces shore the 
dashes ©ere more attenuated and the midpoints less easily de¬ 
termined. la ordinary writing such high speed la never attained, 
hence such a source of error io minimised* tb& comparison of 
measures as totalled for the strokes shove approximately iden¬ 
tical restilts, srith a total vitiation of about *8$. 


Table 12. 


Stroke 

Humber 


1 * 


11 . 


1X1. 


Interv Observer Stroke laterv Observer 


Humber 

AmG* 

F.W* 

Var. 

Humber 

Humber A.0. 


Var* 

1 

23 

23 

** 

- 


39 

27 

27 


- 

• 

2 

35 

34 

1 

* 


30 

28 

29 


•*. 

1 

8 

33 

36 

m 

3 


31 

32 

31 


1 

m 

4 

41 

39 

2 

** 


32 

29 

28 


1 

m 

5 

41 

40 

1 

4» 


33 

21 

24 


•a* 

3 

6 

35 

39 

m 

4 


34 

14 230 

14 

234 



7 

35 

34 

1 

* 

1?. 

35 

12 

11 


1 

•• 

8 

32 

20 

3 

** 


36 

20 

22 


- 

2 

9 

23 

24 

• 

1 


37 

35 

34 


1 

•• 

10 

20 

21 

- 

1 


38 

45 

45 



4M 

11 

13 331 

ss 

15 532 




39 

48 

50 


- 

2 

12 

2 

•ft 


40 

48 

47 


1 

• 

13 

19 

19 

• 

«•- 


41 

41 

42 


• 

1 

14 

34 

34 


m 


42 

35 

34 


1 

«► 

15 

45 

37 

8 

m 


43 

21 

20 


1 

• 

16 

45 

52 


7 


44 

19 324 

10 

324 



17 

49 

45 

4 

•» 

V. 

45 

29 

29 


•ft 

«■ 

18 

45 

46 

m 

1 


46 

31 

31 


•ft 


19 

45 

51 

• 

6 


47 

34 

34 


•• 

•• 

20 

43 

41 

2 

* 


48 

si 

32 



1 

21 

39 

36 

3 



49 

25 

24 


1 


22 

23 

28 

15 

ff 

** 

*p» 

1 

fS* 

If 

17 

X4 -lfi4 

w 

3 


24 

J&J&Z 

JJLM2 

2 

• 


52 

26 

27 


- 

1 

25 

13 

m 

•» 

3 


53 

38 

40 


m 

2 

26 

16 

19 

m 

3 


54 

43 

43 


•* 

— 

27 

24 

21 

3 

• 


55 

43 

45 


m 

2 

28 

26 

25 

1 

«* 

Total 


1650 1650 

45 45 







. 

T • •- ' ; 

fcrv , . ‘ ’:f'v v* sal - •wsi* r H s $£ 




s3SSL .JtlsS^ 







- 
































0<$ 
































































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9 

















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* 


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«XA 







Dtfii s . 8 - Comparison of /Iersurements of the Srhc 
fte coro or two Observers 









































































97 


The ©peed curve© of the tiro sets of measures are remark¬ 
ably la agre^nt for purposes of interpretation# 


bi&gr&m a* Comparison of Seasure&eots of Tso Observers 


The findings of this study canrst, in any seas©* be de¬ 
clared exhaustive. Tfec. primary emphasis urae, of necessity* 
placed on the development of requisite apparatus and method, 
yet many reeordi were analysed and. data assembled that point 
tbs way to quit© definite conclusions at certain points* The 
method used has proven to be very efficient and should be fur¬ 
ther made use of, under rigid controls, to authoritatively de¬ 
termine the solution of the many probleias in the field of 
handwriting which My thereby be dealt with* 

The handwriting movement of 20 different subject© uas 
here investigated and jSa^graphie records secured and anal¬ 
ysed for each one* The subjects were distributed as follows* 
heven were children* ranging from 7 to 1C years of age* Si* 
sere poor adult writers and seven 'sere good adult writer©, as 
jsurged b, the degree of co-ordination chiefly* 

Class Serial dumber 

Children ...*.♦****. 13 through 19 

(ro©r Writers.* 2,4»6,^,ll,12 

Adult© (Good Vritero .*.*.*1,3,5,7,8,10,20 













. 

i • iiv r . y$> . • f - v*wss : ■ 

* * .wiU'vi. .• • li- V r * >:, ■ : - ■ left . 




PLATE I 






Reproduction of Indirect Owls as Written 
for Record by the Various Subjects 














































































































. ■- '■ ' 
























98 


Each subject mite for record a running indirect oval# and 
the majority then wrote the sentence# "Then be wakes hucy 
from sleep#" so that a study might bo made of a simple repe¬ 
titive form as sell as a sample of characteristic penmanship* 

Organisation 


Units of Movement * 

It has been clearly noted by Freeman® that the better 
writers tend to divide their writing into definite unite or 
strokes# with a moment of slowing down of the speed which 
serves to distinctly differentiate the successive strokes# 
while the poorer writers usually show no such regular type 
of orga nis ation # the evidence noted on this point in this 
investigation is merely corrobstive# 

In Plate X is given the photographic reproduction of the 
indirect oval as written by each of the 20 subjects* In 


Plate One* ' Samples of Indirect Ovals as Hade for accord by 
Subjects 


each case# that part of the original written, record which was 
not photographically recorded is indicated b\- heavy horizontal 
lines# either above or below# and terminating so as to locate 
the point at which the record wao begun or ended* Subject 


^Freeman# F*H* The Handwriting xovement* Educ*Moa*#il# p#17 



























. ' • - ■ ‘r ■ • . ,> i - $43 

■ 

' : ; .. - . > : 

. 

. 

*i X.V. SSrSSSSKS, : U ii %X ■ >•' gjfojg $£ JS 

. 

ittlltd-r ■, it ■ tm i ae-> vn.' 

P... V --1 ':■-•- : ■ : 'V v &T'i 


atOO<& -St'T- ftl aj wC ■ X •; ***> . • * 

. 


• . 

. 

. * v. :\j ■•=:■•• . . <f «jt-. irwatm *ds & i* J&ia w* 

. 










40 jo do jo 3 c i o o >«■» tz'o 130 

TIME INTERVALS - .'oZ SECONDS EACH 


Speed Curves for Subjects in Writing Indirect Ovals 



















































































































































































































































I 

98 

m* 5 made no photographic record for this exercise* la the 
case of Subject Bo* 1# although the photographic record was 
fatten* the afgiml written record was destroyed and a sam¬ 
ple of typical writing substituted* Plate XX exhibits the 
speed curves for each subject la performing the exercise shorn 
in Plat© 1. The result© are here grouped, not for the purpose 
of detailed tmmwmmr& 9 tut for reedy comparison* 



Plate XI. 


As one surveys the records of Plate XX one ia struck with 
the great variety of speed curves a© to form. In the follow¬ 
ing table (Table 15) the subjects are classified as to their 
typ of organisation in this exercise* and also as to their 
degree of penmanship ability. 


Table 15. 

Eolation between Type of stroke Organisa¬ 
tion and Quality of Penmanship* 


llurijcr of the Subject 

Type of Organisation Adults Children 

Good Poor Good. Poor 


Clear differentiation 

1 # 9.7 

13*14, 


of strokes - speed em¬ 
phasis on up-strok© 

3 

4 15 


£1if©rentiatioa with 
equal speed emphasis 


0*9 

19 

hecogolifcm of uedt strokes 
but as definite limits 

10.20 

2,11 

16,17 

Varieblo 


12 


Mo differentiation 


18 
















I,: . >' . • ‘ ■ : -- - • 


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• . 

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. • 

- 


-> • -- ’ - • 



■ 














:•' .. ? - • • . • • ■ 








• • • . ._ * .. ... - ~ 





- 

...... • - • .' •' - • • ■■' ’ 







Ftq (4 - Sample, of Usual Pemmahsh/P of Sos j. *2 . . 













t 



































It is noteworthy that the good and poor alters In the 
first group of the table stand in thoxrtio of 7 to 1* the only 
poor writer being So# 4# And shea on© examines the penman¬ 
ship of this writer* it is found that this writer f s chief 
fault lice* not in neglect of stroke values, but in lack of 
appreciation of the standard forme. ttm moot marked charac¬ 
teristic of the Matters of this group is la the giving of 
full value to each stroke of the exercise* Sfost of them 

write in a forward slant* though Ho# 14 shoes a great coal of 

/ 

v? u v iaiio&. 

Hone of the second group is a good writer. i'he two adults 
habitually slur over the strokes la their writing and none of 
the group seems to have differentiated between up and down 
strokes as to requisite length or spped emphasis* 

Of group three* Ho* 10 and Ho* 20 ere ijooa writers* it 
is notable that these subjects give an open* vertical form 
to the ovals end make leas differentiation than would be the 
case with a slanting* compact curve. Subject 2 of this group* 
a sample of shoe* writing is here given in T igur© 14* is a 
smooth* fluent writer who makes good use of arm movement* but 
who ceems unable to organise his stroke© definitely so as to 
form connected* yet separable units. In this illustration 
it is notable that the dorn stroke and the up stroke arc not 
united in his habit* so that his pen Is even raised from the 


Figure 14* Sample of Writing of Subject Ho. 2. 











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101 


paper at the east of a down stroke in many case©* Subjects 
16 and 17 are uncontrolled writers who have not yet developed 
habits of differentiation. 

Subject 12 Is a rapid, impetuous, backhand writer, who at 
times gives evidence of a definite plan of organisation for a 
fee strokes, then on other strokes may follow m definite, co¬ 
herent plan* 

Subject $*« 18 is the youngest child writer, 7 years of 
age, and as yet gives no evidence of having achieved any re¬ 
cognition whatever of stroke organisation. 

The , ev idence furnished from this s mall group ja consistent 
with the , conclusion# of Freeman above noted * It must be un¬ 
derstood, however, that poor .writing, as here defined, is on© 
of formal emphasis, having to do with the organisation of the 
strokes so as to conform to den site demands as to what the 
form of the letters shall be, but in no sense relating to el© 
meets of co-ordination which we shall next consider* 

Steadiness in the Hate of Movem ent* 

There is a marked difference between the ape-4 curves 
{Plate II) of the various subjects in the wemmss of pro¬ 
gression of the line representing speed changes* In zom 
cases the curve shows vary frequent changes which Indicate de¬ 
cided. fluctuations in the rate of movement, «feil* in otter eases 
the progress is quite steady showing only the regular rise and 
foil of the rates of movement at the middle and end of sue- • 
oessive strokes* 










3i , V- .• •• • ’ ' ’ .> > • ' 

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F/G. (J . r/Zftc/MG OFTmqe of Recoko of Cf/ld Suajecr Fio. /8 


















A© a moat noteworthy example of the former the record of 
Subject Bo. 18 nay he cited# Such a frequent and character* 
latlc fluctuation la the rate of movement obtains thr ougho ut 
as to be almost Incredible were it not sustained by careful 
scientific evidence # The original zeroise of this subject, 
a child of 7 years, on which the ©peed curve la baaed, is dho m 
in Plate I, and a careful tracing of the projected image Is 
reproduced in reduced form in Figure 15, so as to permit of 


Figure 15* Tracing of Writing of Child Subject So* 18 


analysis* The spaces between the cross bars represent the 
time interval, m before noted am explained, of a fiftieth 
of a second* As am observes the line of writing one i© struck 
by the irregularity in the distribution of time intervals 
throughout* There is apparent no o m moment of ssaxissra speed 
in any stroke, shied is gradually approached and then gradu¬ 
ally departed frorag in fact, a higher rate of ©peed may sud¬ 
denly succeed one of slow rate or vice versa, without any trm e- 
ition, as for example, in the second upward stroke* Ho two 
strokes of any kind are alike in the order of the rates of 
progress. In some cases, ss In the first down stroke, the 
movement is fairly 'uniform, rising to no height of speed. In 
contrast with those, such as the second down stroke, which show 
a marked variation In the rata of motion* In ©very stroke 
there la abundant evidence of Incoordination in the more or less 

















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abrupt changes in the direction of mavemtO,* but these seesi 
to be quite independent of the rate of /covenant• The other 

child records. Ho. 17 and Ho. 10* are in general similar to 
this one* though lea® extrerrtc in the degree of coordination* 
probably due to the greater* age of the children. 

The form of the oval as mode by the child subject Ho* IS 
is not highly objectionable in its general outlines* in fact 
Boem of the curves approach quite cell the standard requirement* 
but ©loser analysis reveals the waverings in the- line. Mini- 
lastly this ©Mid subject has acquired no control of the 
.mseles used la the writing process so there is my freedom 
of • The small variations in speed and form are 

doubtless due quite directly to the lack of nerve steadiness* 
The writing Is* for the moot part* slowly drawn* The ©Mid 
does not is my sense recognise the exorcise as divided into 
strokes which arc to be treated as separate* definite units 
of movement. It may be that frictions of the pen on the 
writing surface, as well m muscular inhibitions and uncon¬ 
trolled movements* have united to introduce element© into the 
writing process which prevent the establishing of any relation 
between the direction or extant of movement sad the speed with 
which the movement is made* In coordination of this type is 
clearly recognisable* 

toother type of lacooruinatto is that Illustrated in the 
case of Subject Bo. 11* & sample of ahoae writing, and the speed 
curve for th© sa^ie are shown in Plates 1 and II respectively* 

The tracing of too enlarged imago of this sample la shown in 










Figure 16* In this instance the subjects &hom markedly loss 
tendency to variation In direction, nevertheless Narnia no® 
evidences of abrupt change which ora not In the form of a 
regular curve being conn tract oa, or mi'^onloua to it. It 
is mutable that the changes In direction era regularly aceom- 


Figure 16* Tracing of rpiling of Mult Object Ha. 11 


pasted with changes in speed, so that abrupt change© reduce 
the rate of action while strokes which arc longer and having 
an eves curve are asd© with an even increase of speed to the 
midpoint, loUMi by a decrease* 

This subject has evidently established a fora of control 
that mm quite lacking la the case of Subject Ho. IS* he has 
established a freedom, of oevessel which generally insures a 
correspondence of speed and direction of wveo^st* His diffi¬ 
culties are primarily mechanical ones in the sense of not being 
able to coordinate the activity of the finger© and arm in such 
a way as to produce a uniform and sell constructed product# 

The first type of incoordination if ohgracterigtlo of the 
writing of children *ho arc beginning to write , ir or of eca 
fcuults wm ar e for t he first time u sin g tm urac rerc lgKga muscle* 
This second type %s f ound enmg the more advanced child writers 
and aim among the p oo r adult writers * This type of iaco- 
qrdimtioa can bo clearly acted b£ the eharaeteristic breaking 
of curved forma into angular sections, though the Use of writ- 











































F/q . /J- TRRCtNC, of Part ofIfwge of Record bf Subje cr No. 1 
















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o 














































ihg Itself Is not TOverfas ami the speed proves u will bo 

quite yell controlled within any such sectioa * 

la marked contrast to these exhibits is that of tubjoot 
Ho* 1 in the sense exercise {Plates X and II rtnd Figure 17}* 

Xu this esse there is a general tendency to reach all curves 
regularly* Tfeere is, throughout the exorcise, no evidence 
of incoordination o either of the above mentioned types, the 
definite and regular progression, of movement is quite marked* 
It is is a sample of writing ami of record of a nature subject 
of goou writing ability sad represents a goal of achieves® at 
in this respect. 

Figure 17* Tracing of falling of Mult Subject Ho* 1 


l)iero are, of course, gysdatlons of all three of these types, 
tjad as ecll, an latereiu&lin& of tho-..> f , but the grit tea product 
smy jsivc clear evidence of a pr-edoaloanee of one over , the other 
in some, cases , os sell as the marker existence of one or both * 

A study of the written records (Plate 1} shews the following 
classification of the subjects and this classification Is cor¬ 
roborated, by the evidence furnished by the speed curves (Plate II}* 


Type as to Coord last ioa 
1, aver lug bias Angled Curves . Ki 


von Curves 


Good Writers 


Poor rlters 17,18,19 


9,11,13,16 

10,13,14 


2 , 4,6 

1,5,7,8,15, 

20 






































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It is notable that om good adult writer and two child 
writers of goad quality fall ammg those who do not make well 
rounder curves, but their defect is small la eo&parisoa and is 
not evident to casual inspection because of other excellence 
of foils. In general, the better writers arc characterised 
by a higher degree of coordination. 

Distri b ution of tpeed ffjthla the stroke * 

It has been clearly noted by Freeman urn others that the 
better writers tend to place the greatest speed at the ^iccle 
of the stroke, with a gradual a preach end falling sway from 
this speed* S^ch a tendency is, of course, modified in the 
course of actual writing !>$ the nature of the preceding and 
following strokes, and so is best recognised and analysed in 
the repetitive exercise of the running oval* In writing of 
this type the speed curve should shoe a charset eristic distri¬ 
bution of speed; l*e«, a regular increase of speed to a maxinsum 
then a regular failing away to a low speed somewhat as at the 
beginning of the stroke, the form of distribution being fairly 
well balanced about the point of maximum ©peed. If w© exam¬ 
ine the records of Plate 11 for thos© subjects who make a clear 
distinction between up and down strokes (#1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 8, 
13, 14, 15, 19} a great difference is found in this respect for 
the different individuals* 

Analysis of the curve for Subject No* 1 anav s the strokes 
to be qulie regular. In the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and next to the 
last strokes there is evidence of a skewing toward the left. 





107 


indicating a more rapid accumulation of speed in the begin¬ 
ning of the stroke than tmre 1® a ©lowing dawn at the end* 

In the can a of Subject Ho* 5 comparatively lew strokes 
©how this even distribution of ©peed* mjoriiy of the 

Strokes 9bm seam Irregularity in the approach to and falling 
away from the moment of maz&mm speed, and quit© often there 
are two modes of speed in a stroke* Few of the curve© for 
any stroke ar e notably skewed* however* and though there Is 
©one evidence of irregular progression la the original writing 
(Plate X) the ovals are, as a rule* made quite smoothly and 
regularly* One of the beet examples of the regular curve Is 
seem in the case of Subject Ho* 8 (Plate 11)* Curve© for 
stroke:© 5* 7, 8* 9 and 13 ere mouol© of eyssaetry# although 
most of the others are ©lightly skewed to the left or right* 
Subject Ho* 7 tends to skew the curved records to the left on 
the up strokes by placing the imsiisas epee4 early in the stroke* 
sad to ih^ right in the down strokes by sloe in, . down quite sud¬ 
denly* Consistent with this fact the top curves in the oval® 
are largely rounded* and the bottom curves quite narrow* the 
pen moving quits rapidly in tne first case anu quite slowly in 
the latter case* tubjset Ho* Id also ha© this habit quite 

strongly fixed and tnsir written records (Plate X) show gener¬ 
al similarities. 

The child subject So. 17 already sho-s quite a tendency 
to symmetry ox mvmmnt in the aioin up stroke which he has wider 

fair control* but the Incoordination destroys the form of the 
curve in every case* iSubject -*o* 19 has not attained any 



/ 


108 


control of the synractrieal placement of speed vs lihin the 
stroke, nor have some adult subjects, as So* 11* 

In the case of nearly all subjects there can be found In¬ 
dications of the symmetrical distribution of speed on isolated 
strokes, but, unless there is a general tendency to this end, 
so that the majority of the strokes are of this character, the 
or iter cannot be said to have achieved the mastery of inis 
element* 

to shat extent this is a desirable feature, or to what 
Gogree specific practise is to be recommended for its accom¬ 
plishment are questions which eanaot be determined by this In¬ 
vestigation* Tm better writers unmistakably show an empha¬ 
sis on this characteristic* 

Possibly this characteristic, when present, functions in 
such a way as to contribute special, beneficial features to the 
writing process* Just what those features are can best be 
appreciated by an intensive study of the penmanship produced 
under various conditions. 

10 cite specific instances subjects So. 6 and Ko* 9 are 
defective writers chiefly because of poor distribution of speed* 
the former places the maximum speed too early in the stroke 
with the result that the strokes are thrown out of shape, with 
evidence of strokes too long, curves that arc too rounded, etc* 
Tm latter, in many cases stops too suddenly, with the result 
that his writing is generally more angular, with small recogni¬ 
tion of terminal curves* In both eases the writing Is thrown 
out of alinemeat• (See Plate III, p*115) 












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. 


























In Sample 1 is shown the writing of om who has good 

control in tills respect and regularly distribute© the speed 
of the stroke symmetrically. Reverses* angles, curve©, let¬ 
ter forme csad spaces are all smite well cared for. His regu¬ 
larity has already been noted in tfee analysis of speed curves 

<p* 108)# 

In general it is difficult to find any writer who is ex¬ 
clusively at fault in placing the maximum ©peed either too 
early or too late in the stroke, or to find one who is entirely 
devoid of either of these characteristics* the form of sons© 
strokes used in writing probably necessitates so much distri¬ 
bution. But where they may be counted as defects they arc 
dearly recognisable, and si hen either or both occur to such 
an extent as to mar the written product, they require specific 
attention. 

It i© evident that this defect cannot be easily identified, 
as distinct fram errors of perception. However, if' specific 
training In the perception of forms does not result in im¬ 
provement in these characteristic©, although the fora of the 
latter may be changed, or improved, it is well to look to the 
movement as the more probable cause. Furthermore, perceptual 
error 1© not apt to characterise a person 1 © entire writing* 

home forms will be sell registered, and effected, while other© 
will be notably defective# But when the motor elements are 

at fault, the whole writing process is affected throughout, and 
any or all forms will suffer. a person may produce defective 
forms and yet give evidence of a symmetrical movement within the 
forms which he produces. In this case a perceptual error io likely# 





uo 


The problem of or calcation of m oveme nt Is bor e found to 
bo directly significant far such element s as steadiness of 
fine# rounding of c urves, eonotruction of sables or reversals 
at the era of strokes # length of strokes , spaces between let * 

i^slsiUaa la J&U.a ism? Th&m it ti& jaoeUiiSBfc m&dm 
whethe r the tyro fff aoscamqft,. fa the cause , or ... whether ft is 
the effect of an attempt to a Aspt oneself to the form aa imaged 
la consciousness * In every case the individual writing saould 
be scaly sea , as indicated above # so as to isolate and deal sjth 
these two factors anti note to what an extent either or both are 
present or predominant * 

Natural Bhytte » 

The presence or absence of simple temporal rhythm may be 
noted in the case of each subject# if rat in the simple repeti¬ 
tive forms# as the running oval, and secondly# in ordinary writ¬ 
ing# by noting the time required by the subject in making succes¬ 
sive strokes# and computing the average or percent deviation of 
these periods* In the exexcise with the oval the comparison 
is easily made, as all up strokes and dotm strokes ©re easily 
identifiable where the writer has dlfierentfated between them* 
th& union of the up and down stroke may also bo considered a 
unit, the up stroke usually receiving the rhythmic beat# and 
these units may be compared in the same say* 

la Table 14 ore presented the figures showing the time spent 
by each subject on each stroke (up or dosm) end each pair of 
strokes (total) in performing the exorcise indicated in Plate- 

















































A 1 *S:-i >S ! $S '' & SilCfia 2£flE 

. 

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. 

. 

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. 

. 

■ 

. 













Ill 


X* The aame data are represented graphically on the horizon¬ 
tal scales la Flat© II # but not. In comparable form* 


Table 14 

Temporal afeytfcsa la Spontaneous Writing of 
Indirect Banning Oval* 




Time- 

per stroke . 

• 50ths of a aecoac. 



Variation 

Indiv. 

bait* 

X* 

► 2, 

► 3. 

4« 

* 5* 6* 

7* 

. a* 

9. 

ID 11 

12 

Tot# 

Ave# 

Tot* 

FerCi 

1* 

Bp 

a 

7 

7 

7 

a 

7 

7 






51 

7*3 

2.9 

5.7 


Down 

6 

6 

7 

7 

6 

7 

7 






46 

6.6 

3.4 

7.4 


Tot. 

14 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 






97 

13.8 

1.S 

1.5 

2 . 

bp 

1 2 

12 

10 

10 

10 

10 10 

11 12 

10 

9 


116 

10.5 

9*5 

8*2 


Down 

a 

6 

6 

Q 

a 

7 

6 

6 

4 

6 

6 


69 

6*5 

8.5 

12.3 


Tot* 

20 

18 

15 

16 

18 

17 

18 17 16 

16 

15 


185 

16#8 

11.8 

6.4 

3. 

Bp 

m 

11 

11 12 

10 

11 

11 

11 





77 

11.0 

2.0 

2.6 


Down 

10 

2 

10 

10 

10 

10 

9 

** 





68 

9.7 

2.9 

4.3 


Tot. 

- 

20 

21 22 

20 

21 20 

- 





124 

20.7 

4.0 

3.2 

4. 


8 

a 

a 

a 

a 

9 

a 






57 

8.1 

1*5 

2*8 


Pawn 

6 

7 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 






45 

6*4 

3.4 

7.8 


Tot. 

14 

15 

15 

15 

14 

15 

14 






102 

14*6 

3.4 

3*3 

6. 

Up 

11 

12 

11 

10 

11 








55 

11*0 

2.0 

3.6 


Down 

9 

9 

10 

10 

a 








46 

9.2 

3.2 

7.0 


Tot . 

20 

21 

21 20 

19 








101 

20*2 

3.2 

3.1 

7. 

Bp 

10 

10 

10 

9 

10 








48 

8*a 

1.6 

3.3 


Pawn 

5 

4 

5 

5 

5 








24 

4*8 

1.6 

6.7 


Tot. 

15 

14 

18 

14 

18 








73 

14.6 

2.4 

3.3 

0. 

Op 

7 

a 

7 

7 

a 

7 

7 

7 





58 

7.2 

' 2.8 

4.8 


Pawn 

7 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

7 

6 





51 

8*5 

4.0 

7.8 


Tot# 

14 

14 

14 

13 

14 

13 

14 

13 





109 

13.7 

3.6 

3*3 

9. 

Bp 

** 

13 

14 

12 

13 

13 







65 

13*0 

2.0 

3.1 


Down 

8 

10 

a 

11 

11 

a 







57 

9.5 

7.0 

12.3 


Tot# 

a 

23 

22 

23 

24 

22 







120 

24.8 

3.2 

2.S 

10* 

Bp 

10 

13 

12 

13 

13 

12 

11 

13 





97 

12.1 

7.0 

7*2 


Pawn 

8 

7 

a 

7 

7 

9 

10 






56 

a.o 

6.0 10.7 


Tot. 

18 

20 

20 20 

20 

21 21 






140 

20.0 

4.0 

2.8 

11* 

Bp 

9 

10 

10 


10 

a 

9 

10 

9 

10 

9 

8 

102 

8*3 

7.3 

7.1 


Down 

9 

6 

7 

m 

9 

a 

7 

a 

9 

9 

9 

10 

91 

8.3 

10.7 

11.7 


Tot# 

18 

ia 

17 18 

19 

16 

16 

la xa 19 

ia 

ia 

211 

17.6 

12.5 

5.9 














. 




























■ 

. 




















































































































9* 







4 










































































































































. 










112 



(Table 

14 

continued} 










12. 

Bp 

7 

B 

8 

*» 

2 

9 

a 

a 

9 

9 

75 

0.3 

5.3 

7.1 


bona 

6 

5 

5 

** 

5 

6 

a 

7 

7 

7 

56 

6.2 

8.2 

14.6 


tot* 

15 

13 

23 

14 

14 

15 

16 

15 

16 

16 

146 

14.6 

10.8 

7.4 

13. 

Up 

«» 

11 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

12 

13 

12 

98 

10.9 

8.9 

9.0 


Posm 

7 

2 

a 

a 

9 

11 

s 

9 

10 


79 

0.8 

7.2 

0.0 


tot* 

- 

20 

10 

10 

12 

21 

IS 

21 

23 


158 

19.8 

12.0 

7.6 

14* 

Bp 

2 

13 

u 

ii 

10 

11 

11 




76 

10.9 

5.3 

7.0 


Doun 

10 

a 

a 

ii 

11 

11 





59 

9.8 

7*4 

12.5 


Tot. 

12 

21 

12 

22 

21 

22 

• 




124 

20.7 

6.6 

5.3 

16. 

Op 

m 

9 

13 

10 

10 

a 

9 

9 

10 


7a 

0.7 

a.o 

10.0 


5ovm 

a 

a 

7 

2 

a 

9 

a 

9 

■m 


60 

8*2 

4.4 

6.7 


Tot. 

0 

17 

20 

12 

18 

17 

17 

18 

m* 


120 

18. 0 

6.0 

4.8 

16* 

Up 

ix 

14 

12 

13 

17 

15 

13 




m 

13.6 

10.0 

11.2 


Domtk 

10 

9 

10 

7 

a 

9 

11 




M 

9.1 

7.X 

11.1 


tot. 

21 

23 

22 

20 

25 

24 

24 




xm 

22.7 

10.5 

6.6 

17. 

Op and 

dosn strokes Inseparable 







tot* 

30 

35 

38 

30 







141 

35.3 

11.0 

9.9 

Id* 

Op 

20 

10 

18 

21 

23 22 

29 




141 

20,1 

10.9 

7.7 


liOfen 

20 

14 

20 

IB 

20 18 22 




132 

10.0 

8.1 

6.1 


tot. 

40 

32 

38 

32 

43 40 41 




273 

39.0 

16.0 

5.8 

12* 

op 

17 

15 

la 

20 

19 24 





113 

18.0 

23.0 

U.5 


down 

14 

U 

14 

16 

17 17 





92 

15*3 

8*0 

8.7 


tot. 

31 

22 

32 

56 

36 41 





295 

34.X 

21*0 

10*2 

20. 

Up 

«. 

10 

10 

10 

10 12 

11 

10 



73« 

*10.4 

4*2 

5.8 


Down 

a 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 

4 

5 



49 

6.1 

7.2 

14.7 


tot. 

• 

17 

17 

16 

16 10 15 

15 



114 

16.3 

6.3 

5*5 







SUPPlfOMt to Table 14 





XX. 

Up 


7 

7 

7 

7 

a 

7 

7 



60 

7.14 

1.7 

3.4 


l*©sm 

7 

6 

7 

7 

6 

7 

7 




47 

6.7 

2.9 

6.0 


tot. 

«* 

13 

16 

14 

13 

15 

14 




83 

13.8 

3.4 

4.0 

Id. 

op 

2 

7 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

7 

a 


71 

7.9 

3.5 

5.0 


Down 

6 

7 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 

7 

6 


64 

6.4 

4.4 

6.9 


Tot# 

15 

14 

15 

15 

14 

14 14 26 

14 


13524.3 

3.9 

2.9 

20. 

Up and dcmn strokes not separable 



16 .S 


6.1 


Tot. 

IB 

14 

17 

16 17 

16 





98 

4.6 




























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the acta of this table* although by no moans complete 
fox* a comprehensive study of any of the Individual©* reveal© 
sons© Interesting facts* 

In every case where the up and down strokes are clearly 
dlffextent 1st ed * mors time was required f o r the up stroke t an 
for the down stroke * the amount of difference varies from 
over 100/> In the case of subject No* 7 to less than in the 
case of No# 13* It is noticeable to casual inspection that 
the up stroke in the running oval is usually much longer than 
the down stroke and one my infer as is shown to be the e oe 
(page 137 } that the greater time is due to the greater length 
of stroke* 

'km &Qo& aoult writers on the whole show loss v ariation 
from their average length of time th a n do the poor k riters » 

The following tabulation makes this clear: 

Ave* for Gent of Vex*. 

Up Stroke Down Stroke total 

Good writers: 1*3*7*8*10*20 4*9 8*6 3*2 

Poor Titers: 2*4*6*9*11*12 5*4 10.9 4.9 

No conclusion can be drawn regarding individual cases* however* 
as sos© of the very poor writers show much better rhythm than 
the good writers* on the whole* 

the children* although in some eases manifesting a high 
degree of rhythm as compared with sore acults* arc on the whole 
poor in this respect* their average per cent variation being 
7*17. there is evidence of a rhythmic tendency* even among 
the youngest subjects, ah Ho. 18, where the fora of the speed 
curve would not lead one to suspect any such temporal rcgul&rity* 








































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114 


!io clear differentiation can be made between the two adult 
groups on the basis of speed* but there is a distinct difference 
between the time taken b^ adults and that taken by children la 
the respective strokes. In the combination of the up and down 
strokes the range of adult time lies between 13*7 ami 24*8 d$ 
with an average of 17.3 d$ while the range for children is from 
18 ©/ to 39 d» with m average of 27*1* Talc comparatively low 
speed of children was already noted In the previous experiment 
fp* 42 }. 

Although there la no perfect correlation between rhythm In 
this exercise and speed control as manifested in the speed curves 
(Plate II) those with high degree of rhythm seem to have the 
beat type of speed progress * For example* hubJcots 1, 4* 7* 

8 and lb* with an average of 3*3 per cent variation* exhibit 
fewer reversals from high to low speed, and vice versa * while 
the child subjects 16* 17* 18 and adults 11 and 12 have about the 
greatest number of speed reversals and also their variation is 
much greater* However* there are exceptionss #9 and £10 shoving 
many speed reversals* yet m owing the low variation of 2*8 per 
cent each* while Ho* 20 with few speed reversals exhibits a 
much higher variation* 

The Hhythra of the written %ord * 

The study of the writing process m shown in construction 
of selected passages* carried on along lines similar to that just 
described, should reveal to what extent temporal rhythm obtains 
In ordinary writing* which is comparatively quite complex la 











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Samples of Penmanship of the Subjects as Written for Record 









structure* Sot all of tno samples of writing or Illustrations 
of speed curves can be hero presented, but enough typical examples 
will be given to show the significance of the results* Plate 
1X1 show© the reproduction of the original writing of the vari¬ 
ous subjects of this exorcise* 

Plate 111* Samples of Penmanship of the Subjects as Written 
for Record 


The simplest word, which was written by Id of the 20 sub¬ 
jects * was "he** This was chosen for preliminary analysis be¬ 
cause of the quite simple succession of strokes, 7 in all in the 
complete form* Opportunity is given to compare the strokes of 
various lengths, to note the variation of time as affected by 
length and also to compare the similar influence of form* 

The rhythmic beat on this word, according to standard sys¬ 
tems of counting, should fall on the first, third, fifth, and 
seventh strokes* This would presuppose that succeeding pairs 
of strokes (up and down) are made in corresponding lengfchs of 
time* The question arises, do writers in general, consciously 
or unconsciously, provide for such a regularity of beat, or so 
equalise naturally the successive strokes or pairs of stokes? 
Furthermore, do the good writers show greater rhythmic apprecia¬ 
tion and skill in this respect than do the poor writers? 

The analytical study of this exercise Is collected in the 
data of Table lb, th© per cent variation being shown for both 















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116 


individual strdkes and pairs of strokes. In the last pair of 
strokes (d) the seventh stroke ia united with the next stroke 
made after lifting the pen from the paper in transit to the 
next word "wakes", The variation , whether considered in the 


Table 15 

Comparative Time in $ Spent by Each Subject in 
Eaoh Stroke and Pair of strokes in Writing the 
Word "he". 


Subj 

• 


SIEG-LE 3THQKB3 


£ 



PAIBS 



So. 

1. 

2 

Z 

.4 4< 

5 

1 6 

7 

kve 

Var. 

a 

To 

0 

d 

Ave. 

Var 

1. 

9 

14 

7 

9 

9 

9 

11 

9.7 

16.4 

23 

16 

18 


19 

12,3 

a. 

13 

14 

9 

5 

11 

6 

13 

10.1 

34. 

27 

14 

17 

23 

20.3 23. 

4. 

9 

i 

5 

& 

7 

6 

6 

6.6 

23 

17 

10 

13 

10 

12.5 

20. 

6. 

e 

8 

4 

4 

7 

5 

4 

5.7 

29.3 

16 

8 

12 

8 

11 

27.3 

6 

11 

10 

6 

5 

7 

5 

6 

7 

28.6 

21 

10 

12 

13 

14 

25. 

7. 

10 

9 

6 

5 

6 

4 

6 

6.6 

25.2 

19 

11 

10 

17 

14.2 26*3 

8. 

12 

10 

7 

6 

3 

4 

7 

7.4 

27.3 

£2 

13 

10 

15 

14 

23*3 

9. 

11 

19 

§ 

6 

S 

6 

- 

8.7 

17.3 

22 

17 

13 

- 

17.3 18. 

10. 

10 

10 

7 

5 

7 

6 

3 

6*9 

23.1 

20 

12 

13 

7 

14 

27. 

11. 

7 

6 

6 

4 

6 

5 

8 

ea 

21.2 

15 

9 

11 

9 

11 

18.1 

IE. 

9 

5 

4 

7 

2 

6 

5 

5.3 

29.5 

14 

11 

7 

10 

10.5 19. 

13. 

7 

8 

e 

4 

7 

4 

- 

5.8 

26. 

15 

9 

11 


11.7 19*1 

14 

10 

16 

7 

6 

6 

4 

6 

7.9 

36 

26 

13 

10 

** 

16.3 39*4 

15. 

7 

10 

7 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7.1 

9.2 

17 

13 

14 

- 

14.7 

10.7 

20. 

-11 —e _16_4_6 _£ 

7 


J21&-1 1 

—9 01-13. 

os.? ayj. 

Tot. 

144 149 

92 

83 

102 

80 

39 107.8 

373.3 

293 178 182 

124 

218.2 333. 

Ave. 

9.6 9.9 

6.1 

5.5 

6.8 

5.3 

6,8 

7.2 

24.9 19 . era# i*.i: 





11.7 12.4 14*2 22.2 


singled or paired strokes , is far greater than was the case in 
the exercise with the running oval . The consideration of the 
strokes in pairs does not show rhythm markedly super5.or to that 
of the single strokes. 

It is notable that the longer strokes or groups o f strok es 
require a longer ,time_,M._ma ke. , M .:l 

of each subject , than the shorter stroke s. The first two strokes 
of the "h" are made in about the same length of time, but each 



















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requires generally over* 5Q£ more %%sm than either of the five 
succeeding strokec of the word* the three upward strokes fol¬ 
lowing require more time on the average, arid in the majority 
of the oases* than the downward strokes* hut are quite compar¬ 
able with each other In this .respect# The fourth end sixth 
strokes show similar length and time elements* The three last 
pairs of strokes, which are quite similar so.to sice, do not 
differ greatly in the time element, tut are clearly differen¬ 
tiated from the first pair of long strokes* 

So distinction mu he here found between .good ana poor 
writers in the degree of rhythsu The two groups average shout 

the same, and seme of each group show comparatively good rhythm, 
sod others comparatively poor- rhythm# 

The study of this exercise le-*,s to the following hypothesis * 
the general tendency ia for the individual to adopt the time J u 
some relation to the length of the stroke betog constructed * 
hence Jt tm£ £& expected that strokes of similar inegth are more 
naturally adapted to temporal rhythm* and furthermore, rhythm, at 
least of -this type, in ordinary writing, does not mm to he a 
characteristic of good writers m contrasted with poor writers * 
The matter is discussed more fully later on (p* 128 ff*) and pro¬ 
vides the basis for a &m interpretation of rhythm in mndwrltin • 
Other samples of writing acre investigated In order to discover 
whether these tentative conclusions are thereby substantiated. 

In complete records were gotten of the woxd **thea, w the 
loiters n b” and ”e w occurlng here as in the sord *he,* except 
that here they arc la context, with r tf following. It was found 

























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that the same a Iff ©rent iat ions between the strokes occurred 
as In the word "he." 

The word n wakes” was chosen as a typical word involving 
certain complexities of letter formation in the construction 
of it, «uch as abrupt reverse curves in the "a* and "s% and 
special constructive difficulties as in the . This word* 
on account of these features particularly# docs not yield c as- 
ily to any system of rhythmic beat* The first five strokes# 
those of "w* are easily susceptible to metric analysis with 
the beat m the up or forward stroke# but fixing of the place 
of such & beat in the movement from n w” to ”$f on the small 
part of the "k% and in the n s* is most difficult# as compered 
with the simple form met with in the word "he#* The recon s 
for the ttsajc 15 subjects as those noted in Table 15 were gotten 
for this word "wakes*” It is not necessary to present the 
complete data# but a summary table is here given {Table 16) 
which shows the average time taken by the group for each of the 
19 strokes aad also gives the average duration of each stroke 
as well as the average per cent variation# 

Table 16 

Average Time Spend on Successive strokes 

in the word "fakea" by lb Writers 

(expressed la SQths of a second) 


Stroke 

1 

2 

5 

4 

5 

6 

7 

a 

9 

10 11 

A VC* 

3 

6 

a. 

7 5# 

6 6*e 9. 

1 7.5 

6*4 

5.1 

9.1 9*5 

Stroke 

12 

IS 

14 

15 

16 

17 

13 

19 

Mean 

% Var 

Awe* 

7. 

3*5 

4*5 

7*5 

5*8 

7.7 

9*4 

10.5 

7.4 

25*2 





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ii 


IE 14 II 20 5 6 7 4 16 8 1? 1 9 ? 

SUBJECTS BY TNOlVIDUHL HUMBER. 

DffiG 9 - Showing Tendency of Subjects to Give the Sene 
/Iverrqe Time to Strokes in Different Word 

































































































































































































































































119 


Consideration of the average duration of strokes in the 
two tables (15 and 16) reveals the fact that the average time 
periods are nearly Identical, 7*2 4 and 7*4 4 respectively, and 
this may be tentatively regarded as the approximate'average 
length of time spent on the stroke in ordinary writing, i.e., 

*144 seconds, if it be assumed that the data here presented is 
characteristic of the performance of groups of individuals on 
the average. It is at least shown to be quite characteristic 
of this group in these two exercises* 

Another point of similarity is found in the percentage of 
deviation In the two cases, 24*9$ and 25*2$ respectively* It 
is possible that this figure is also characteristic* It is 
likely that the data from the two words arid n wakes* are not 

comparable since the distribution of long and short strokes are 
quite different in the two cases. 

In the following tabulation (Table 17) and accompanying dia¬ 
gram (Diagram 9} the measures are arranged according to the rank 
standing of the subjects in average time spent In strokes, as 
shown in Table 16, and compared with their standing in results 
of Table 15. 


Table 17. 

Comparison of Subjects 1 Kecords* 


Sub.1 *., Time 

A 

Hank 

B 

Time 

Bank 

A 

Subj*i Time'’ 

Hank 

B 

Time 

Bank 

12 

4*9 

1 

5*3 

1 

7 

7. 

8 

6.6 

6 

14 

6* 

2 

7.9 

11 

4 

7.6 

vk 

6.6 

6 

13 

6*6 

4 

5*8 

3 

10 

7.6 

Of 

6.9 

8 

11 

a.a 

4 

6.1 

4 

8 

7.7 

11 

7.4 

19 

20 

6*6 

4 

6*6 

6 

15 

8.5 

12 

9.2 

13 

5 

6.7 

6 

6*7 

2 

1 

8.7 

13 

9.7 

14 

6 

6*8 

7 

7. 

9 

9 

10. 

14 

8.7 

12 






3 

10.1 

15 

10.1 

15 












































































































































































































































































































































































































































120 


It Is noteworthy that individuals snow a general tendency 
toward giving a fixed average length of time to a group of 
strokes* AlU&ugh a few, m Subject Ho* 14, shoe shirked devia¬ 
tions in this average for the two words, in the majority of cases 
there is a close a reement, and even exact duplication in the 
case of subjects Ho* 3 and Ho. 20* 

The tendency of the group, both on the average and by indi¬ 
viduals is to devote unequal amounts of time to the respective 
strokes in the exercise* This is clearly evidenced in Diag 10 , 

Diagram 10* Variation of Group in Average lime dpent on Succes¬ 
sive Strokes in the Word f *$akes." 


which graphically presents the average of Table 16* The range 
falls between 4*5 £ for stroke 14 and 10/3 £ for stroke 1G. la 
general the longer strokes receive the greater time emphasis. 

The difference la duration of strokes, does not seem proportionate 
to the length, however* for example, stroke 6 is not generally 
nearly as long as stroke 10, yet it receives almost as such time* 

In this case and others it is found that the complexity of the 
stroke may be operative as © factor in the c domination of the 
time spent* 

There is no marked distinction .between the poorer adult . 
writers and’ the better adult writers as to the degree of c cviation * 
The children d o, however, show a notably lower degree of rhythmic 
control, than the ©cults, the former having 30*1 per cent devia¬ 
tion while the latter have about 24 per cent * 

Detailed analysis of tue words "buoy," "from," and "sleep* 
Merely substantiated tbe general findings noted above, and offers 










































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121 


no variant or specially oew testisjony, hence the tables of* 
measure© are not horo presented fox* study am comment* 

The Effect of lolloplag an Imposed Kfayttaa , 

This topic was quite fully treated In Fart two of this In¬ 
vestigation In connection with simple movements, and is cached 
upon here only briefly as It is related to written exercises. 

The behavior of two adult subjects in the following of the imposed 
rhythm was noted« Both of these sere good penmen; (me (Bo* 5) 
was trained quite well in such procedure, and the other (Bo* 20) 
had had no previous drill in following a rhythmic beat while 
writing* The subject first wrote the exercise for record in his 
natural style of penmanship* The metronome was then set up and 
adjusted to a rate most agreeable to the subject, so that a more 
rapid rate produced a sense of confusion, ana one ©lower gave a 
lagging sensation* The subject then practiced a few minutes until 
he became accustomed to conditions, and acquired freedom through 
orlll on the exercise to be recorded, and the record was then made. 

Diagram 11 exhibit© a typical section (part 1) of the speed 
curve for xioxmial writing as made by Subject Bo* 5 in comparison 
with two sections (parts 2 and 3) of speed curves of corresponding 
exercises written by the same subject while follotsing the imposed 
beat. The chaxmcters "he, 11 "he," and "hen* ax*e represented here 
in the three parts of the diagram respectively, the latter being 
included so so to show the sa m letters thrown into context* 


Diagram 11. The Effect of Folio wing a Beat. 


There i© a clo^e agreement between the latter two parts, both 
as to distribution of speed site.In comparable strokes ano the 














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122 


organization, snowing that the behavior of the subject was con¬ 
sistent in the following of the imposed rhythm* 

the curve of speed for the first 7 strokes of ports 2 and 
3 is noticeably longer than for part 1, snowing a slower rate of 

movement* The imposed rhythm, which was as rapid as could be well 

followed by the subject, was such slower then his natural move¬ 
ment* This subject followed quite closely the rate of beet im¬ 
posed, the average time spent by him on each pair of strokes being 

about 21.6 i while the rhythmic beat was at the rate of 22 jf» or 

135 per minute. The writer made the up stroke on the incidence 
of the beat* 

The time organisation is much different when the rhythmic 
beat 1 b followed than when the writing is spontaneous, as shorn 

S! 

by the following tabulation (Table 13) in time measures of the 


Table 13. 

Comparison of Time Distribution Without and Blih Im¬ 
posed Rhythm. 

Dev* 

Stroke Ho. 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 Tot /> ve foTT~T 


Spontaneous 9 7*5 4.5 4. 7. 5. 4. 41 5*./ 11*9 29. 

Imposed 14 10* 10.5 11. 10.5 10. 11. 77 11* 6. 7*3 

Imposed 12 10. 5.5 11.5 9. 9.5 12.5 74 10.6 3.6 11*6 


length of a 50th of a second* The time for aeon stroke is in¬ 
creased on the average about 803* The time distribution in the 
following of the imposed rhythm if more rhythmical in the sense 
that successive strokes are given more nearly equal amounts of 
time ) the deviation in the duration of strokes made in spontaneous 
writing being about three times that of the exercise with imposed 
rhythm. 

The exercise constructed following the beat was appreciably 
larger than In spontaneous writing, and the adaptation to the larger 



































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Dm <5. /2 - Co/'t PARIS Ofi of Speed Curves of Subject *5 tor Writing the Word "uakes " NRruRftLLr [pprtiJ 

RAID FOLLOU/tNQ AN IMPOSED RhYTHM . [pppr Hj ONLY FIRST /O STROKES NOTED /N Pfr T H. 
































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































sise, whether cause or result, is accompanied by the Increase of 
time rather than the Increase of speed except In the smaller strokes* 

There is no great contrast in the organisation of speed rela¬ 
tions within the stroke in this exercise as due to the effect of 
the rhythmic beat* The subject comes to a point of rest at the 
end of the second stroke on the "fa w in the following of the rhythm, 
but does not do so in his normal writing* There is some sug^stion 
of minor irregularities in speed progression, especially in strokes 
4, 0 and 7 of Fart 3 which are not evident in Fart 1. 

This characteristic is much more evident in the speed curve 
for the word "wages’* (Diagram 12} as written on the same occasion, 
and under the same conditions of imposed rhythm, which is given 
(Fart 2} in comparison with the curve for normal writing (Part 1}. 


Diagram 12* Comparison of Speed Curves of Subject No* 5 for the 

Word " Fakes* as ritten Without and ith imposedShythm 


Many curves in Fart 2 show a hesitating, wavering progress, as 
though the writer were uncertain of his control, and indeed simi¬ 
lar in this respect to the speed curves of those subjects who evi¬ 
dence poor coordination, as before noted <p. 104), but in marked 
contrast to the steadiness as shown in Part 1* 

It can hardly be expected that one's rate of movement could 
be slo&ea down greatly from the natural or accustomed speed, and 
not have an appreciable effect on the formation of the writing* 
Though the written tor ms of this subject do not show any great de¬ 
gree of incoordination when following the imposed rhythm there are 
present slight irregularities in curves which do not characterise 
his ordinary penmanship* The greeter the degree of adjustment in 































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































124 


time, the more hesitating the movement seems to be, as evidenced 
by Diagram 12* Stroke 4 la increased from 4*5 i to 11 /, stroke 
5 from $ 2 to 13*5 /, stroke 7 from 5 d to 14 /, and stroke 9 
from 4 £ to 10 /, and in each case these strokes do not evidence 
the definite organisation characteristic of strokes 10, 11 and 12 
for example, which arc given a much ©mailer proportionate Increase 
from the spontaneous form* 

The effect of the Imposition of rhythm on Subject Bo* 20 is 
shown in a typical case in the speed curves of Diagram 13* The 


Diagram 13* Comparison of Speed Curves for Direct Oval by Sub¬ 
ject So. 20 without am with Imposed Hhythsu 


first represent© the direct oval made spontaneously, and in gen- 
oral ©hows a steady progress, with little evidence of hesitation, 
or vaccllation of speed* The second, which was made while follow¬ 
ing an imposed rhythm of about X20 beats per minute, shows a waver¬ 
ing of the speed rate throughout which is significant of an intrud¬ 
ing factor* The movement in this exercise, while more rapid than 
the boot which was to be followed in the ratio of about 18 / to 21/ 
1© yet somewhat ©lower than the ordinary writing* The writer did 
not succeed in following the beat closely. In fact constantly tend¬ 
ed to approach hi© own habitual rat© of movement, but he tried to 
do so, and the conscious attempt, while not fully successful In 
adapting the rate, probably greatly affected the organisation» 

There is evidently a danger that In the attempt to follow a 
rhythmic beat , especially when it i© ©lower than the normal rate , 
one may b e held back in his movement with <* disastrous result to 
the form of the product * What would be the effect on an adult of 


















125 

an attempt to follow a rhythm faster than his normal rate is 
problematical, since such a rhythm could not "be consciously 
followed! except possibly in rare cases. Experimental inves¬ 
tigation of the wilting of children under these conditions 
would be valuable. We have already noted (pp 47,53.) that 
the children are affected differently than adults by the im¬ 
position of rhythm, especially in regard to arm-finger rela¬ 
tions, end it is probable that this unhabituated group might 
be greatly henefiied in rapidity and coordination of movement 
by the imposed beat. 

Speed of Movement. 

Thus far we have been concerned with the duration of 
strokes; now we will turn to a consideration of the rate of 
movement within the stroke. The marked changes in speed of 
the pinpoint during &ny exorcise by individuals have been no¬ 
ted, especially with reference to the speed curves of Plate 
IX, It is noteworthy that, where the individual 1 s organ¬ 
ization permits, there is a definite point of maximum speed 
in each stroke, os well as points of minimum speed just pre¬ 
ceding and following the stroke. The minimum and the max¬ 
imum rates of speed of successive strokes , in the writing of 
any exercise, are found to vary greatly among different indi¬ 
viduals, and also not to remain constant in the case of any 
one individual, in various corresponding units of the exer¬ 
cise. This is shown in the following tabulation (Table 19) 
giving successive maximum rates only. 

The maximum speed is in most cases discovered to fall reg 
u 





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ulrxly in the upward strode of the slanted oral, while the 

minimum speed is usually found at the lower curve of the oval, 

Table 19. 

Maximum Speeds Attained within Successive Up-Strokes in 
Writing the Direct Bunning Oval. 

_»M._ % 


lio*.. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 6 

7 

9 

9 

IQ 

u 

)?, 

Mean. 

Yar 

1. 

19 

f» 

19 

19 

21 23 

20 






20.14 

6.3 

2. 

■w 

12 

11 

12 

13 16 

13 

14 

14 

16 

12 


13.5 

9.1 

3. 

12 

13 

16 

14 

16 16 

14 






14.3 

8.3 

4. 

13 

13 

13 

13£ 12t 12 

14 






13. 

3.3 

5. 

3 

8 

7 

3 

e 







7.8 

44 

7. 

ef 

iof 

§ 

11 

12-5 







10.6 

12.8 

3. 

12% 

12 

12% 12, 13 

13% 13 





12.6 

3.2 

9. 

12 

9 


9 

1C 9% 







10. 

8.3 

10. 

3 

6 

6 


7 7 

6 

6 h 





6.6 

9.6 

11* 

** 

8 

3 

ill 

10% 10% 11 

lot 10 

10% 

9* 

10| 

9.9 

8.7 

12. 

10 

10 

9 

9 

12 9 

11 

13 

10% 11 

1* 

10.6 

10. 

13. 

9% 

7k 

% 

8 

9 9 

8 

7 

7 




8. 

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14. 

7 % 

4 

3 

7% 

7 6% 

6% 






7.1 

9. 

15. 

15 

14 

14 

12 

12% 11% 

11 

11 





12.8 

11.4 

16. 

10| 

4 

4 

9 

10 9% 10 






9.4 

6.7 

17. 

13 

17 

18 

13 







16.7 

13.8 

19. 

10 

i% 

9 

10 

8% 7% 



io£ 




9.2 

11.7 

20 

9 

9 

9 

8% 

8 9 

10 

10 




9.2 

4.7 











fetal 200.3 

136.3 


Mean 11.1 8.03 

just preceding the upward stroke, the next to the highest 
speed is attained in the Fiddle of the down stroke, and the 
next to the lowest epeod in the course of the curve at the 
sumit at the oral just preceding the downward stroke, these 
relatione varying, however, with the eluents of the oval. 

Suggestion lias already been made that the duration of a 
stroke varied to sene extent with the length and complexity of 
tho stroke, (pp. 116 , 117 , 120 .) The relationship he tween the da* 
ration, rate of movement, and the length of stroke t.t.c analysed 
to sane extent, and the results with a t&plcsl case nre here 
sumnrorised in ?able fO, the construction of a direct oval "by 
Subject #1 being under consideration. 

It is noteworthy that the up-strokes are on the average 
longer than the down strokes and also require more time, as well 








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Tat>l« 20 

Comparison of Duration,Length,and Ma xlaoa Speed In Repetitive ^zeroise 

Boss sffiioiaa DPsraoKKJ 


Strok® Duration 

Length MaxeSp. 

Stroke Duration 

Length MaauSp. 

2. 

7 

243 

42 

3 

6 

318 

63 

4 

7 

263 

46 

6 

7 

266 

60 

6 

7 

260 

43 

7 

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312 

58 

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263 

48 

9 

84 

318 

53 

10 

6 

226 

44 

11 

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49 

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214 

41 

13 

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268 

44 

14. 

6 

201 

37 

15 

7 

300 

54 

16 

6 

231 

46 

17 

7| 

294 

61 

18 

7 

231 

41 

19 

Tjr- 

300 

60 

to 

41 

206 

39 






6.1 

233 

42*6 


7*9 

296 

61*4 

Mn.DoT. 



2*6 




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Batio of 








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1 

38.2 

7 


1 

37*6 

6*6 


as a greater maximum speed, She variation is maximum speed is 
about the same in both groups, 8hen one considers the relatione 
between the various measures by ratio it ie found they are a- 
bout the same in the up-strokes as in toe down-strokes, with a 
suggestion of a slightly lower proportionate maximum rate, and 
a slightly higher proportion of time being spent on toe longer 
or up etrokee. There ls,however, no absolute relationship of 
this kind holding in respect to individual strokes, as we find 
* stroke of 231 jL being made in toe same time as one of 300 pi, 
and one of 208 ji showing a smaller max i mum rate than one of 263 pi, 
toe evidence here given points to toe conclusion that the&ength 
of the stroke alone is not the determinant of wither toe maximum 
speed or duration of stroke, but that it is one factor in a com¬ 
plex with other significant dements. 

toe writing of a child offers remarkable contrasts in 
toe relations of length, maximum speed and duration of strokes, 
to that of the adult; in fact toe indirect curve as made by 
Subject Humber 18 reveals no correlation between these de¬ 
ments, and this record is quite typical of toe performance 
of younger children. toe stroke is not usually made 






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with a free movement as a unit, as has been before noted, and the 
child writer has not yet adjusted himself to any definite relation¬ 
ship between the elements of speed and duration within the stroke. 

But when no consideration is 'given to the child writing with 
its particular type of incoordination there yet remains to be found 
the explanation of the lack of relationship between the length of 
portion! r strokes and the speed with which they are made* Tills 
is doubtless found in the complexity of the stroke with special 
reference to the changed in curvature. 

It is Inadequate to compare two curved strokes as to length 
unless they are both of the same shape. The curved stroke, used 
in writing is constantly changing direction, so that possibly only 
very small sections can be regarded as perfect ares* But any 
curved line of writing. In which there are changes in the degree 
of curvature, and this clans probably constitutes the majority, may 
be considered as divides into sections of curved arcs, each with 
its own r&dial measure, and a more or less gradual transition from 
one to the other. The limits of such arcs may be difficult to 
define, but if the chafes are guite sudden and angular the dis¬ 
tinction between successive sections is more clear* 

The total line of writing should perhaps be regarded, not so 
much as separated Into successive strokes as into arced portions 
of greater or less perfection of form, From this point of view, 
a stroke, as commonly designated, is more properly a section of the 
written line made up of an arc, or a complex oi arcs, tending to 
progress in a definite direction end having Its limits in a more 

or less abrupt turn, or a definite point of stoppage, in which case 
the pinpoint comes to a rest, at least for a small period of time* 















































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Microscopic analysis of the writing indicates that reversals of 
of direction following a full atop are rare, and that changes of 
direction ouch as occur at the end of the first stroll on a "t* 
or n u m are accomplished by mean© of a email loop s&ich is indeed 
Invisible to the eye in many cases of ordinary writing* and nay 
be so minut© as to ©scope detection in even such an analysis as 
was here made* 

Freaaan notes (1) the general principle as stated by Bloat and 
Courtier and Jack that the speed i© proportional to the radius of 
the curve and suggests that it would hold roughly if the speed were 
due to mechanical factors alone* 

the oval as written by Subject so* 20 was first used as mater- 
lal for study along the lines here suggested, to see what was the 
Influence of curvature on the speed attained within the stroke* 

In X igure IS is shown a portion of this oval broken up for measure* 
ment into 7 arced portions* having their centers of radiation in 
order* as indicated by the numerals 1 to 7 respectively* It is not¬ 
able that the radial lengths differ greatly* The lengths of these 
radii wore measured in ma* and. made comparable with the- maximum 
rates of speed per 50th of a second* The measurements of 55 arcs* 
sc looted at random where the differentiation was clear* worw isade 
and t adulated* Casual Insect ion of the table revealed a definite 


Figure IS* Portion of tracing of Direct Curve. Analysed into 
Separate Arced Segments* 


(1) Freeman* F*2U An ixperimentel Study Of Bandwriting* Fsych. 
Monthly, #75* p* 26* 
















F/<7. /9- Relrt/on Between Rpo/rl 

LENGTH OF ARC FI NO Tift XINUN SPEED 

Within the Pro. Subject #20 





















































































































- 







































































130 


direct relation between the length of the radius of an arc and the 
m&xiimim speed attained within the respective arc. The lament radial 
length of 20 jft Is associated with the lowest maximum rate of 8 jd, 
while the longest arc radius, one of 111 jl swings an arc having a 
maximum speed of 26 #i, which is the highest recorded for this exer¬ 
cise. The coefficient of correlation between the radial length and 
the maximum speed, as computed by the Spearman Rank Method, is .96. 

The table need not be reproduced here but Is presented graphi¬ 
cally in Diag. 14 in order to show the correlation between the two 
elements under consideration. This diagram is placed with others in 
a plate (Plate Four) for comparative purposes. The evidence is In¬ 
disputable that the correlation exists to a strong degree and in a 
positive direction. The line of regression here outlined suggests, 
however,a curved rather than a straight line relationship with a pos¬ 
sible falling off in regular increase of speed after the radial length 
of 30 $ has been reached, and a tendency for the rate to reach a 
fixed limit ss the arc approaches a straight line form. 

In Figure 19 this relationship is shown in diagrammatic form. 

The three arcs, having radii of 20 d» 76 $ and Ill g( respectively 


Figure 19. Relation between Radial Length of Arc and Maximum 
Speed within the Arc. Subject So. 20 


from the common center 0, have measured off upon them the segments 
o-f, c-d, and a-b measuring 8 22 ^ and 26 4 respectively. Through 

the limits of these segments representing maximum speed rates, the 
lines A0 and SO are drawn to indicate by the distance between them 
the hypothetical speed rate for all intermediate, as well as exter¬ 
nal points. The testing of this diagram at any radial length showed 













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131 


approximately exact agreement with the f acta of iseaBurefaeat as tab¬ 
ulated far this writer. in fact, ©it a the diagram la hand 0138 mJtit 
forte! 1 with comparative exactness the rate of maximum speed at any 
paint, in case the radial length of the involved arc could toe dis¬ 
covered, and vice versa * This figure shows quite clearly the les¬ 
soning of the proportionate rate of speed as the radial length in¬ 
creases beyond a certain point. This would indicate that large writ¬ 
ing could not toe done m rapidly in proportion m small writing, since 
the arcs would necessarily toe of greater radial length. For this 
writer, at least, the largest arc denoted seems to show a speed rel¬ 
atively shout one-half as great as with the small, though the abso¬ 
lute rate of movement is greatly increased. 

The oval above noted was one made in the attempt to follow im¬ 
posed rhythm. In the same way an indirect running oval, made spon¬ 
taneously toy the sags* writer, was analysed with similar results. The 
same, apparently stable, ratio between the speed and radial length 
occurred in this case, with very high correlation and, when graphed, 
a line of regression practically identical with that in Diagram 14. 
Considering that these ovals were written under different circum¬ 
stances and are different m to form, the first being direct and the 
latter indirect. It is evicent that the writer shows remarkable hab¬ 
ituation of relationship between the two elements under consideration. 

The writing movement of this subject is characterised by re¬ 
markable fluency, freedom and smoothness, his ©hole behavior giving 
an observer an impression of machine-like regularity. It will b© 
well to analyse the records of others, glib a view to noting the in¬ 
fluence of this characteristic# Other subjects who resemble Ho. 20 
In type of movement will first be considered. 





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132 


The behavior of Subject So* 1, though quite smooth and regular# 
with evidence of free movement* differs from that of Subject 20 in 
the greater emphasis ©a finger movement * m ia# however, quite con¬ 
sistent in this respect# ma ©hows a tendency throughout all Ms 
writing to let the finger movement cooperate isitn the am movement* 

The direct running oval was analysed as to the relation between 
the radial length and mm xlmum speed with results as shown grs^ Me al¬ 
ly in Diagram lb# It should be noted that this oval is much larger 
than that mad# by Ho* 20 and the measures for both the radii anti max- 
lmum speed are larger# necessitating a reduction of the scale to on# 
half that of Diagram 14* The high degree of positive correlation is 
evident* The 38 arcs measured were quite close together# giving a 
very thorough distribution throughout the line of movement* The re¬ 
sults are very suggest!?# of a straight line relationship in the can# 
of this subject# with a slight leveling In the area of medium sice* 

Subject 2 is an adult who may be classed as generally poor v, rlter 
Els position and movement are all that ©an bo desired In point of 
holding the pen# and fluency of motion. Be has never had any sys¬ 
tematic training in penmanship, and has mad# no voluntary effort t© 
attain the correct forms# position or movement# though he makes us© 
of very little finger movement* The analysis of the indirect oval# 
ae made b* this subject# shows a clear relationship between the radial 
length of the curves and the mxXmm speed attained# as depicted In 
Diagram id# The line of regression is in this ease a consistent 
curve# signifying a lessening of the increment of speed with Increased! 
sis# of the arc* This writer Is classed as a poor writer# but his 
chief difficulty seem© to lie in the proper* formal organisation of 
the various parts of forms, rather than la motor control# since he 
has such smooth# fluent movement# 













. 





























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Subject Z, m. expex*t pen&an* recently in the employ of one of 
the great penmanship systems, has a movement which is very free ana 
almost fiourishing, using the arm movement alaost exclusively on the 
large strokes hut depending on finger movement to a great extent in 
smali strokes * although reported to ho an arm movement writer* His 
penmanship is of very high grade according to standard forms# His 
record* as portrayal in Diagram 17* shows notable correlation between 
the else of the arc and the speed with which it is constructed* k 
straight line regi'cssloa is here suggested* The one measure which 


Plate 4* He 1st ion between the Badlal Length of a Curve and the 
Speed with which it is made• 


seems to lie outside of and above the line of regression occurred 
during the shift between words, and might be the result of & hitting 
the fulcrum of leverage* perhaps in the use of the whole arm from 
the shoulder in adjustment to a new position* as indeed was the gen¬ 
eral habit of the writer* 

Subject 4 is considered a poor writer as far as formal penman* 
ship is concerned* especially in his rapid style, yet there is a con¬ 
fidence and certainty as well as a fluency in his movement which in¬ 
dicates fair motor control* The speed curve of Plate 11 shosts remark¬ 
able uniformity of organisation in successive similar strokes, with 
good appreciation of rhythm. He msecs use of thumb finger and wrist 
almost exclusively* SI has had no systems tic training, hut has im¬ 
proved his own writing greatly through deliberate attention to regu* 
latlon of movement* The Table of Correlation Diagram id Indicates 
the direct relationship of the radial length to maximum speed with 
possibly less deviation from the line of regression than sas the case 






with the previous subject • There is flattening of the line of re¬ 
gression in t 'm upper measure© and a suggestion* consequently# of 
lower correlation* The very compact distribution in the lower 
measures is noteworthy* 

analysis was made of the records of a few subjects who evidence 
a lack of motor coordination in the written product (of* Fiat© XI}*. 
Subject #11 is an adult writer who uses finger movement almost ex¬ 
clusively* exhibiting almost no use of the forearm or flexion of the 
wrist* The finger movement is cramped me stiff* though the subject 
is quite a rapid writer, with an average rate of about 142 letters 
per minute* Though the line of writing for this subject is not wav¬ 
ering* there are more or less abrupt changes of direction which are 
destructive of form* The data showing the degree of correlation is 
presented graphically in Diagram 19* This subject also shows a pos¬ 
itive correlation between the two categories, but the loci of the 
measures are not so closely grouped in a definite indication of a 
line of regression, thus showing a less exact relationship tnaa vm 
the case with those subjects before studied* The trend of the m as- 
ures also lias flatter with the base line than was the case with 
them* indicating a slower speed relative to the size of the arc* 

Subject 9 is a poor adult writer who has a clumsy use of arm 
movement to some extent# and who finds it very difficult to control 
adequately any of the arm and finger muscles used in writing* his 
writing shops# not mere abrupt changes# but also minor waverings in 
direction* Diagram 20 shoes a similar record to that of Subject 11 
above noted* There i© the same tendency to direct correlation and 
the ©am© scattering of loci so as to msk© tfe© line of regrecuioa lass 
definable* There 1© also the leveling of the curve in the upper 


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measure© showing a lack of cor roe ponding relationship between the 
rate of movement and sis© of arc In the larger arcs ae conpored 
with the smaller* 

hubjeet 14 was an older child subject about 12 years of age* 
whose writing is not characterised by great incoordination (see Fiat© 
II and III), but lacks the free flawing movement which we nave noted 
in some subjects* there are some abrupt changes in the direction 
of curvature* but very little wavering* His chief difficulty seems 
to He in letter format ion • The diagram 21 shows evidence of correl 
alien of speed gjad sis© of arc in the smaller strokes, but In the 

Plato V* Cttnpsfrison of Poor "riters - Burning Oval* 

Relation between the radial length of a curve and the 
speed with which it is made - in ordinary writing* 


larger arced strokes there la a leveling of the speed measures which 
Indicates a comparative lack of direct relationship* This child isa 
finger movement writer though being trained In the public schools in 
free am movement* and has difficulty in fluency of arm control. 

The case of a single younger child subject will suffice a© typ¬ 
ical in the study of this relationship* It was quite dif i leu It to 
discover in the indirect oval (shown in Plat© I and Fig* 15} made by 
Subject 18* a child of 7 years of age* many representative sections 
of the line of writing which might fairly be called arcs, as the 
changes in direction were so frequent as to defy this type of analy¬ 
sis in any complete manner* However careful analysis of a lengthy 
sample of writing produced the results shown In the correlation table 
of Diagram 22* The survey of this diagram snows it to be in qilt© 
evident contrast to the preceding records* Here there is no real ev¬ 
idence of any correlation between the two categories*the loci of acas< 




• > 

'■ j i jXmjk 1 • irfj? ♦ ;.*** 

. 




130 


urea being quite iMlscrimiri&tely scattered, so that no line of 
regression can be ascertained and no ratio of correlation computed* 
The question remains as to whether this relationship between 
the rate of movement and the size of the curved stroke is discover- 
bble in ordinary arlting, in wnich there is a complex combination of 
straight end curved lines and in which at least all the smaller move¬ 
ments are made with some aid, if not the major aid, of the fingers* 

Xt was found more difficult to isolate the curved sections from 
the complex of movements than was the case in the running oval* This 
was because the arced portions would change so gradually into approx¬ 
imately straight lines, also the majority of the curves were of such 
small dimensions as not to afford, even on the enlarged scale of 
projection used, a ready or exact measurement * 

The record of subject 20 in the writing of the characters, w ben 
he wakes* was analyzed, and the measures for &X1 the more clesr-eut 
portions made and tabulated, btuby of the graphic table of correla¬ 
tion (Diagram 23) shows that the direct relationship still obtains 
for this subject in his regular writing, though probably not in as 
marked a degree* The line of regression takes a different trend than 
was the case in diagram 14, being similarly placed among the lower 
ant higher measures only, and indicating a slightly different rela¬ 
tion between the two scale values as a whole# 

Tm plateau in the line of regression, as compared with that of 
Diagram 14, cannot bo certainly explained until more cases arc con¬ 
sulted and comparisons mode# An hypothesis may bo formulated, how¬ 
ever, which will be based on the nature of the written exercise, and 
the habits of the writer, am which may prove a basis for future in¬ 
vestigation. This subject uses arm movement quite freely and thor¬ 
oughly on the larger swinging movements such as occur in the oval* 


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In hi© ©mall©* 1 * ordinary ©riling* however* he uses the finger 
movement quite perceptibly* ©specially on the seller strokes* It 
i© possible that the difference in the two records Is explainable 
on the sup os it ion that the correlation curves for the arm movement 
and finger movement are distinctive* It is likely that the predom¬ 
inant use of the fingers in ordinary writing is responsible for the 
relative sloping down of speed in the medium sized arcs* hut we 
have already noted Cp* } that the finger Is generally more rapid 
of movement in the stroll than the arm* and in fact this writer shows 
his smaller sections up to 30 d in radial length to be made with a 
greater speed proportionately than the longer arced parts* 

It is more probable that the plateau exists because of the 
shifting from one set of movements to the other* which would natur¬ 
ally occur in the medium sized strokes* In the use of either am 
or finger movement there would be In the case of any Individual a 
lever of definite length and weight operating in a more or less 
fixed manner* But when these diverse sets of lever’s act together 
we have the Introduction of new operative elements which may act in 
such a way as to change the whole relationship* uere Indeed is the 
critical point in the development of coordination* 

Subject Bo* 5 is a fluent writer who has an appreciation of 
rhythmic movement as sell as skill in gaining It* Be also makes free 
us© of am movement on the larger strokes and of the finger movement 
to a marked uegree in the smaller curves* The performance of this 
subject in the same exercise was studied* Diagram 24 shows a posi¬ 
tive correlation between maxismn ©peed and racial length of stroke, 
with a tendency to a curved line of regression* Although there is 
a suggestion of a plateau In the middle sized arcs it Is not so no¬ 
ticeable a© was the case with subject Bo* 20 in the same exorcise* 


* * 







Definite experiment at ion should be planned and carried out along 
tbe linea here su&ge-sted, but under carefully controlled conditions* 
The findings here gotten point toward certain conclusions, but these 
need to be further tested before general acceptance is possible* 

2M flowing movqaoat which Is characteristic of the writ* 
fc**Q showing best coordination, is a matter of motor . control * This 
jagtor control consists of skill in using the members adapted to hand* 
gglM^ «& fr»« owlaging levers , either alone or in combination * 

Each of then© levers, having a cons taut length, ana momentum, tends 
to describe any arced stroke of a certain aim with the same degree 
of speed, in general th e speed increasing ag the sice of the arc of 
movemen t increases * 

This increase of speed is not regular, however * la the cases 
studied, the majority snow a tendency to a smaller proportionate 

I 

speed on the larger arced sections , unci consequently a pr oportion* 
ate increase of time * But a distinction is notab le in this respect i! 
between the better and poorer writers * The former show a marked 
tendency toward a regular , constant in c rement of speed as the size 

-m--Trrrrnw — ,-*-r~ ..«,,««■ «***• • 

of the arc Increases , in c ontrast with the latter who decrease thei r || 
proportionate speed appreciably in the larger arcs , and, show no v cry j: 

close relationship between the rate of movement and curvature of 
the line of movement throughout * 

In ether words, the better writers snow a tendency toward tem¬ 
poral rhythm in which arced portions of varying size© would be made 
at proportionately different rates of speed and consequently with 
about the same duration, as contrasted with the poor writers who 
make a greater adaption of time as a variable* As a matter of fact, 
as has been noted (p* 120} the average writer docs not exhibit any 
complete kind gf simple temporal rhythm in the SSiage that gu c ces s lve 
















































































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140 


gether for moat efficient results, tail Just what is the most favor¬ 
able rate at each stage of the learning process has not been deter¬ 
mined* Her nave those factors which affect the speed of writing 
been thoroughly analyzed and their degree of inf luence estimated* 
dome of these have been noted In this investigation and will be here 
dealt with briefly. There is a marked difference in different in¬ 
dividuals in their rate of movement, which is probably best explained 
as a physiological set, corresponding somewhat with reaction time as 
to fixity and possibly influenced by a period of habituation* This 
is possibly the largest factor in the lack of economy, but the ques¬ 
tion of its extent must lie outside the field of this investigation* 

To what extent it may be modified by training is problematical* 

Gqog motor control which provides definite progressive m ovement 
with no hesitation and is characterized by marked fluency is undoubt¬ 
edly favorable to an Increased rate * The contrast between the child 
record of Subject 1? in Flat© II and that of Subject 1 is typical of 
the effect of a slow, hesitating, drawing movement on the speed of 
progress, the former accomplishing each oval in about 5b & while the 
latter performs the same task in about 14 j i* In general the adults 
show much greater fluency in this respect than do the children, end 
those of the adult group who show better motor control are usually 
most efficient* 

The form w hich is being constructed Is a del©rm i naat of the 
rate of progress * Abrupt reversals o; d irection are accompanied 
with periods of rest which tenu to destroy momentum, directly in¬ 
crease tee time taken and, in the necessity for readjustment, cause 
loss of speed in the following stroke* 

Complexity of letter forms - reacts un( avorably on the rate of 
writing, involving as it does not merely reversals of direction but. 











































PLATE YT 


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MOVEMENT AND TIME OF PASSAGE BETWEEN WORDS 

P = PEN LIFTED FRon PHOTOGRAPHIC FIELD FIGURES IN SQUARES = TIME IN ?Ot!n OF « SECOND 



















































































141 


to a greater extent* compound curves# There la a ©losing or motion 
at any transition otni from one curve to another in a reverse di- 
r action ifith the result that a compound curve is made more slotily, 
other things being equal* than ©m of simple character# Bspid writ* 
era* as subject 11 ©. X2 (flats ill) usually tend to slur over tm 
f oroal elements in the strokes and reduce all curves to si® le ferm% 
with the result that speed is attaint at cout of legibility* 

In element of economy which has never received adequate atten¬ 
tion is one which relates, not to the visible product, but to the 
movement between words* The method of investigation here employed 
permitted the study of this motion in detail so that the Character 
and direction of the movement could be ascertained for the majority 
of the subjects, and the comparative amount of time so spent could 
be computed* The findings in this line of investigation have been 
compiled in Plate Six for ready inspection. The records are incom¬ 
plete as to the study of all such spaces in the exercise, and also 
as to the habitual behavior of any individual, yet enough material 
is here presented to emphasise certain noteworthy facts# The vis* 
ible line of writing in the finished product is indicated in each case 
by a full line, while the movement of the pinpoint from the time 
«fcto It is lifted from the page until it is replaced is shown in 'a 
dotted lino* The small figures placed in mch compartment indicate 
the amount of time in fiftieths of a second which is spent in the 
passage from the end of the particular word to the beginning cf the next. j 
Plate VI. Movement and Time of Passage between Words. 

Detailed analysis of the exhibits presented in this plate st ows 
a great variety of differences in accomplishing this movement, but 






142 


with a majority of the subjects there is evidently a great deal 
of waste motion* In only a few cases uo we find a subject making 
a direct contact from one sol’d to the next* r Ihis is especially 
notable in the record (1) of object Ho* 5, who has achieved well 
nigh perfect efficiency in this respect in the exercise under con¬ 
ditions of normal penmanship* Svery passage between words is ac¬ 
complished with a minimum motion and time* He omits the last stroke 
commonly given to the ®8% but makes it in the air instead in the 
same time as would be ordinarily given to the stroke* so as to make 
direct connection with the beginning of the **L” so that practically 
no time is lo*»t in this passage* the same thing is true of the 
partial stroke between f a” and *b w in the first column# there a 
change of direction is required in older to get into position for 
the beginning of the next word, it is done by a definite stoppage 
of movement at the cm. of the final stroke, and the lifting of the 
pea while making a definite stroke in the air to the beginning of 
the next word* 

The s.*uae characteristic is noted also la the record of Subject 
Ho* 1, between the worus f, Uicy n and ^from", in the first exhibit of 
No* 20 in the first two columns, and to some extent in the single 
case noted for No* o. Moat other exhibits indicate that the subjects 
had marked difficulty in effecting the passage simply, some making 
simple loops, evident in the last three columns for Ho* 20, but the 
majority accomplishing it only by several changes in direction* in 
many cases the final stroke of the letter is made with such momentum 
os to carry the pen far beyond the point of connection, and it must 
then be brought back into position. This is done quite simply in 




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143 


the case of Subject 11* but Is accompanied with a great deal of wan¬ 
dering la the case of other subjects, for example 80 s* 3 , 12 and 14* 

The tiiae spent by those subjects whose record was computed 
ranged between practically no waste time to over half a second, wills 
the majority show an average waste of from 15 £ to 25 i. The sig¬ 
nificance of this factor as an element of economy is indicated by 
the recorc of Subject Ho. 4 for example, who requires only 45 $ to 
write the word ”he/* but spends 33 jf, about 75 per cent of the sasse 
time, in transition to the next word. If this transition could have 
been achieved in 6 £, as was the case with Mo. 5 or 80 * 20, the wri¬ 
ter could have saved 27 which, at the normal rate with which he 
wrote the word ’’wakes*’ just following# would have brought him almost 
to the completion of the next two letters* The instances of which 

this is typical could be noted many times • It la evident that 

writing efficiency could be greatly increased by proper emphasis 
and training In quickness of passage between words . 

As to the cause of indirectness of passage so comma among the 
writers no adequate data was collected* It is noteworthy that Subject 
Bo. 5 advocates and practices a method of progress along the line 
which is doubtless responsible for the superior record* This set nod 
is describee quite well by Freeman, "The Handwriting Movement,” pp* 
16-17, ana may bo briefly notes as a free easy movement of the hand 
by a turning of the forearm on the elbow or muscle pad as a pivot 
accompanied by &n adjustment of the wrist, the forearm being placed 
at an angle ap£;roxiaately perpendicular to the line of writing* 
Freeman’s concept of the value of this act hod relates chiefly to let¬ 
ter foration, but it is evidently of value in point of economy as 
well* The majority ot those s*ho waste time In the passage between 


















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144 


gogAs do jv^hitually shift the arm into jl new position between most 
M M9JEA l-i * ho& this shifting process ig rendered unnecessary in 

the method above outlined. 

Another factor which causes waste of time and motion between 
Aords is joreremjphagi b o n fluency of free htw movement . which i& apt to 
result in an exaggeration of the length of final and initial strokes, 
and the describing of various flourishes in preparation for the be¬ 
ginning of the next word, this is quite evident in the case of 
du ject 3, who is an exponent of an arm movement system of penman¬ 
ship, and in the formal writing especially of Subject #20 (parts 2 
and 3), also the records of Subject #8. 

Ihe formal requirement of extra initial and finishing strokes 
on letters at the beginning and end of words respect!vely, is 
evidently an element of confusion, and restrains the free spontaneous 
choice of movement to establish direct connections. 

The dotting of *i 1 s* and “j*®* and the crossing of the *t* and 
*x* would probably introduce similar elements as the passage be¬ 
tween words, and would require the same training to counteract the 
tendency to loss of efficiency. 

Diagram 25. Comparison of Speed Curves of small and large 
writing by subject £ 20 . 


The else of th e written form is ji factor in economy which cannot 
be overlooked . The record of Subject #20 in writing the word “he* 1 
is evidenced as typical, in Slsgraa 2b is given a comparison of 
speed curve® showing the effect of large writing, part 1 being the 
curve for writing of normal sise and part 2 relating to writing 
which was purposely mad© larger. The word “he* was the exercise here 
measured. The respective samples of penmanship are reproduced to 






























145 


show the comparative sizes, The line of visible writing is rep¬ 
resented in the solid line of the curve, while the passage to 
the next word is shown in the dotted section of the curve# The 
time increase in the larger writing over the smaller, including 
the movement between words, is about 61$* Other words written 
b^r this and other subjects show in every case an increase of 
time where the writing is larger, though in varying degree# In 
general this fact corresponds with that before noted (p#l£6J 
where the amount of time spent on a stroke shows quite a direct 
relation to the length of the stroke# 

The ability to follow a metronome beat has been discussed 
{pp# 60-61) • It was evident from the study of Diagrams 11 and 
12 that the attempt to follow a rhythmic best, although this 
was timed as fast as could be consciously followed, resulted in 
a narked decrease of speed# Apart from the question of organ¬ 
ization, it is evident that the use of the metronome, or other 
rhythmic stimulus, may result in the slowing down of the rate 
of movement in those who are capable of writing well at a much 
faster rate than the beat permits# In case such an adaptation 
could become habitual, as some evidence seems to indicate, the 
use of the beat might result i n a marked loss of efficiency * It 
is probable that some might be aided by a slowing down process 
which would permit greater emphasis on the quality of form# A 
beat which would be rapid enough to correspond to the habitual 
stroke of an average adult would probably be too rapid to be 
consciously followed# Among younger children, who need the stim¬ 
ulus to quicker and more direct movement, such a beat might 
prove advantageous until they reached a stage of ability where 
the imposed rhythm would act as an actual hindrance to further 





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146 


progress in speed efficiency. 

Habituation . 

fhe distinctive difference in the behavior of the various sub¬ 
jects, as above discussed, may for the most part, as far as the 
data presented toes, be quite accidental in character. It is in¬ 
deed possible that the record gotten for any subject may not be 
truly representative ©f his general behavior, since any of his 
exhibits may be quite different from any other which he might 
make. In the majority of the oases thus far dealt with the valid¬ 
ity of the findings have not depended on the maintaining of a 
form of characteristic behavior by the subjects. levertheless 
the question arises in connection with the learning process: to 
what an extent may one expect to find any individual remaining 
constant in his behavior; to what degree 1© this factor an ele¬ 
ment in the total writing process, or in particular phases, and 
how may it be effected? 

One commonly speak© of a personfe ♦’style” of writing a© though 
it was quite distinctive, and though his judgment is usually 
formed as a result of casual inspection, rather than minute and 
detailed comparative measurement^, there is no doubt a tendency 
for particular individuals to develop an habitual form of writing 
which ©hows itself in similar shape© and ©isses of elements, and 
peculiar construction of forms, which serve to differentiate his 
product quite effectively from that of any other writer* 

fhe question that here concerns us is whether or no the indi¬ 
vidual tends to ©how the same time relationships in the construc¬ 
tion of similar strokes, letters and words* Some typical exam¬ 
ples are here compared with a view to noting the degree to which 



147 


speed curves for movements are related* and, if possible, point 
out some of the factors which influence this relationship, 

Eeferring to Plates I and XI it is noteworthy that the speed 
curves and written strokes are quite consistent throughout for 
any individual, at least in the majority of cases* Subject #2 
does not make successive strokes or ovals in similar form and hie 
speed curve for the exercise shows marked diversity in the organ¬ 
ization of the elements which should be similarly constructed* In 
the same class fall Subjects 9,10,11, and 1 2, while 3 also shows 
this characteristic to some extent** Those who show a marked 
tendency toward giving each successive comparable group: the same 
speed and time emphasis are 1,4,6,7,8 and 20* Am ng the children 
18 and 19 are very irregular so that nothing can be certainly 
prophesied as to the probable nature of any following stroke or 
group of strokes either as to its specific rate or distribution 
of speed* In the case of the child f!7,however, the subject seems 
to have acquired quite a distinctive type of control over the up¬ 
stroke,and to encounter the same type of difficulty on all down 
strokes* 

In this manner all of the subjects may be analyzed, with the 
result that some poor writers are found to show indications of 
habituation as surely as the good writers, while some show little 
consistency of performance* some individuals show a persistence 
of behavior in certain phases, while totally unhabituated in others 
The children gradually develop the habitual performance with age* 
The good writers generally show a marked tendency to habituation. 

In ordinary writing the same letters and words as made at diff¬ 
erent times by the same individual should reveal the existence and 
degree of the tendency of an individual to habituation* Typical 



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148 


examples are here presented, showing the analysis of comparable 
forms, and the process by which they are made* 

In Mag* 26 are shown the speed curves representing the rate 
of movement of subject #1 in writing two successive "f*s” in the 
word e iff el M as reproduced In the corner diagram* The curves I 
and II represent the two "f’s** respectively* neither the curves 
nor the letters are identical in form, yet there are significant 
similarities* The summary table of measures are here given* 


Table 21* 

Comparison ofMeasures for Two n £* s” 


STBOKMS 

1 £ g Ave* 


Duration In f £ g g“ f~ |g 



length in $ 


Max* Sp* in n 


The time in on comparable strikes Is the same in I and XI* 

The strokes are found to correspond quite well as to length, 
but differ slightly as does the maximum speed also* In II the 
first stroke is longer than in I, but is made in the same length 
of time* Consequently it is made with a greater maximum speed 
as compared with I* In the second and third strokes the reverse 
is true* The form of the second stroke in I is more skewed than 
the corresponding stroke in II* 

In Mag*27 is shorn the comparison of curves derived from the 
records for making the letter w l w by the same subject on two dif¬ 
ferent occasions and in different context* In this case the sim¬ 
ilarity is not as great as was true of the two "f’s" either as to 
form,duration,rate of movement or organization* The first and third 
strokes are the same as to duration In the two letters, but the 
second varies noticeably* Bone of the strokes is greatly variant 



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in length from Its compared stroke, The maximum speed differs 

markedly in the two for stroke 3, the longer receiving the greater 

speed* In general inspection would reveal that these two curves 

relate to the same form* Such variations as occur in the speed 

curves are clearly traceable in the written forms, and vice versa* 

In the same way the first three strokes on n W* are compared 

with the first three strokes of n M n as written by the same sub- 

Ject* fhe table of measures is given (Table 22) as well as the 

speed curves* {Diagram 28) 

Table 22* 

8THG30E 




1 

2 

3 

Ave 

miration in ft 

I 

XI 

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8- 

§ 

8 

1 % n 

8 

7* 

Length in jk 

I 

IX 

98 

88 

88 

80 

110 

118 

97.7 

93.8 

Max* Bp* in jL 

I 

IX 

29 

20 

28 

21 

20 

20 

24.7 

20*3 


This writer has a tendency to reproduce similar strokes in 
about the same length of time* When comparable strokes are differ¬ 
ent in length they are executed by adaptation of wither or both 
the time and rate of movement* When the time faotor is constant in 
the two cases there is a direct rat ionbe tween maximum speed and 
the total length of stroke* 

The comparison of the records for words, as written at differ¬ 
ent times by the same individual reveals some interesting facts 
with regard to habituation* These records are placed together in 
Plate VII for ready comparison, all relating to different curves 
for the word *he". The numbers of the subjects are placed opposite 
the groups of curves representing their record* The actual writing 
for these records is shown in Blate III (p*118)* 

In the case of 3ubj.fl the first exhibit(i) was made more rap¬ 
idly than the second (ii) with the result that the maximum speed 



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ms noticeable greater than in (ii) while the average duration 
was less, especially marked in some strokes* Practically all 
the increase in speed in (i) as compared with (ii) is gained with¬ 
in the first three strokes, the remaining strokes being made in 
approximately the same length of time in each case, a clear in¬ 
stance M habituation in time interval for a particular type of 
stroke* 

The distribution of speed in the various strokes is perhaps as 
noteworthy for comparative purposes* The second, or down-stroke, 
on the w h” is in both cases retarded in speed at a certain point 
in its initiation, and also again near its completion* The third 
stroke shows even distribution in both cases, and both show a char¬ 
acteristic retardation in the middle of the fourth stroke* Stroke 
five is made with practical identity in speed distribution* stroke 
six differs slightly and stroke seven, while differing in the mid¬ 
dle shows the same evenness of speed placement in the beginning 
and end* Evidently these speed curves are representative of the 
work of the same subject, engaged in the same process on two dif¬ 
ferent occasions, and resemble each other more than tfcoy do simil¬ 
ar portions of the word as represented in curves for other subjects* 

Subject fl2, the rapidity of whose writing is remarkable, has no 
clear differentiation of strokes in either case, and the organiza¬ 
tion of (ii) is quite different from that of (i)* The distribution 
of speed within comparable units is likewise different. This sub¬ 
ject, though showing some small features of habituation, especially 
as to rapidity, reveals no definite system of temporal organization* 
This conclusion also holds true of other comparable records by the 
same subject* 

Subject #11 shows a much better and a more definite organize- 




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tIon than 12, with some evidence of habituation in organisation* 
The respeetive strokes are identifiable in the two records, but 
there is a great deal of variation in the maximum and minimum 
speeds and the time given to comparable elements in the last four 
strokes of the exercise. The passage to the next word is effec¬ 
ted quite differently .in the two oases* Some stroke curves are 
similar to a degree, and there is the same slight rest at the 
end of the second stroke, but otherwise neither record is typical 
of the other in any complete sense* 

Marked habituation is evidenced in the case of subject ?13+ 
The records are so near alike as to require no specific device 
for identifying the comparable strokes* In both oases the time 
spent on respective strokes is about the same throughout, and the 
organization of strokes, distribution of speed, and the maximum 
speed are about the same* the subject is a remarkably good 
writer, with a consistent performance of a free, fluent movement, 
though a child of about 15 years of age. 

fhe comparison of records for Subject #20 reveals another 
clear case of habituation* The four exhibits given are respec¬ 
tively: (I)Speed curve for the writing of "he* in ordinary pen¬ 
manship* { II) Curve for writing of "hen" in ordinary penmanship* 
(III) Garre for the writing of "hen" in large style and (If} for 
the writing of "hen" while following an imposed rhythm* (p.124) 

In all portions which are directly comparable;i.e.,the characters 
"he" in all eases and "hen" in the last three, there is distinct 
evidence of habituation. The lower speed in the last two cases 
is due, hypothetically, to time and rhythm factors incident to 
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152 


stroke® is dietlast and quite similarly effected for similar 
strokes* fhe time devoted to similar strokes in (I) and (II) 
is practically identical, as are also the degree of and the lo¬ 
cation of points of maximum speed* fhe same may he said when 
(III) and (I?) are compared, though these are hardly comparable 
since they were made under different controls* fhe writer 
persists in his habitual performance to a remarkable degree omen 
when changing the sis© of hie penmanship, or when making the 
atteppt to follw an imposed rhythm* 

The curve of speed for Subject SO, though somewhat slower 
in movement, resembles the curve of Subject f!3 so much that 
they might easily be mistaken for one another* fhis fact 
raises the question whether it is not possible, and indeed, 
likely and desirable that good writers should develop quite 
similar habits of speed and organisation when performing the 
same exercise* Just what allowance should be made for indi¬ 
vidual differences in this respect is at present problematical 
and calls for special investigation* It is possible that ef¬ 
ficiency of penmanship instruction is decreased rather than 
increased by a demand that the pupil attain a certain standard 
or formal style* However this may be, it is quite certain that 
the individual pupil sh o uld attain ce rtain fixed habits of m ove¬ 
me nt both as to speed and organization , and that he should , 
wit hin oertain limits, maintain a certa in characteristic be¬ 
h avior in performing the same exercise at different times* 

All efficient penmen here investigated have this tendency 
well established, while the poor ones do not, at least in the 
several elements of duration,speed and organization as well as 











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O/flQ 29 - Comparison of Carl/er (') and Later (2) Writings or mr Word V ikes’ By a Poor Penman (A) and a Good Penman (3) . 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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152 


form* Ho Instances have been discovered in this invest1- 
gat Ion of any poor writers who fa ave definite habits establishe d 
in this way eo that any prophecy oan be safely made as to t he 
characteristics of any stroke on the basis of its theoretica l 
similarity to any preceding stroke * Whether such cases do exist 
is problem^atleal* 

fwo typical cases are given in £iag*29 which show quit© 
clearly the contrast between the records of the unhabituated 
poor writer and the habituated good writer* Fart A shows 
two speed curves for the word "wakes” as written at different 
times by the same subjeet(#9), a poor penman* la Part B are 
given curves for the same word as written twice by subjectflQ, 
a very good writer* In both parts the corresponding points 
in the two trials are joined by the dotted line* In case there 
were perfect correspondence between the two records as to du¬ 
ration these dotted lines would, of course, be in parallel* 
Examination reveal© that the lines in (A) do not exhibit this 
characteristic, while those in (B) do to a marked degree, the 
chief variation being due only to a slight diminution in speed 
in the second record as compared with the first* 

When the individual units of the exercise are compared 
in the two cases in (a), and also the two cases of (B) the 
comparative irregularity of the former two is at once apparent. 
With the first subject comparable strokes very seldom resemble 
one another closely in the two trials, in either distribution 
of speed or duration, but in (B) the record for each stroke 
is quite easily identifiable as related to that of the compa¬ 
rable stroke in the first exhibit or second exhibit by the 










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154 


same writer* In irsny instances the curves for particular 
strokes in (BJ are almost identical, except for slight modi¬ 
fications* 

It is very difficult to deal fcith habituation except 
as it is treated in relation to the Isolated components which g 
go to make up the total movement, and as these are analyzed at 
length and in detail # with thorough experimental controls. 

Bit even from such a summary investigation as is here made it 
appears to he a most significant factor in differentiating 
the good and poor writers* 


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1. the method here devised for analysis of temporal characteristics 
of the handwriting movement has proved itself remarkably 
successful. It has been fo\md possible to analyse speed 
relatione to a very minute degree, and with a very hi^i 

degree of accuracy. Xt has also been found applicable to 
the solution of m great variety of problems which have not 
been susceptible to adequate treatment heretofore. 

2. Good writers show a much more even type of speed dis¬ 
tribution then do the poor writers, especially the younger 
children. In general this type of organisation consists of 
the recognition of the stroke as a unit of movement, a steady 
progression throughout the line of writing with no abrupt 
changes in direction, and a gradual increase in speed within 
the stroke to the point of maximum speed, which is usually 
placed near the middle of the stroke, followed by an even 
decrease of speed. 

3. temporal rhythm, in the sense of an ability to 
execute successive movements in the same length of time, 
does not seem to be very significant in distinguishing 
between good and poor writers, the adult s^sifests 

a iiijier degree of rhythm, on the average, than does 
the child, but the individual child may rank very hi^i 
in this respect. 













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4* In the execution of simple, repetitive forms there is mani¬ 
fested a marked tendency to rhythm, but the written word forms 
shew a much more marked deviation* All writers tend to devote 
unequal amounts of time to the various strokes when those 
strokes are of different length and form* 

5* A marked interactive relationship was found between the three 
variables in the stroke; duration,maxinnim speed and curvature* 
Length of stroke was found not to be greatly significant in it¬ 
self, since a stroke is seldom composed of a simple arced curve 
but rather a complex of curves of different radial lengths* 

When the line of writing was thus analyzed into itB curve ele¬ 
ments it was found that the maximum speed for any arc would 
tend to be in direct relation to the size of the arc as expres¬ 
sed in decree of ourvature* In general, however,the maximum 
£T . >10t 

speed does not increase in exact proportion to the curvature, 
indicating a time adaptation, or increase of deration, as the 
radial length of the arc becomes longer* 

6 A distinction was found between good and poor writers in this 
relation,however* 'fhe good writer tended to keep the time 

more nearly constant by varying the maximum speed within an 
arc in proportion to its ourvature* 2he good writer also 
showed a closer relation between the maximum speed and the 
size of the arc, with fewer exceptions and a more constant per¬ 
formance than the poor writer, indicating the establishment 
of habitual relations between the three variables* 

7* Children show clearly the lack of any definite habituation 
in establishing relationships between these variables, at 
least in the earlier school ages. 


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8* The findings point quite strongly to the fact of suoh a re¬ 
lationship when using finger as well as arm movement * the for¬ 
mer being adapted to the construction of the smaller arced 
V : \ ' } 

curves so frequently demanded in ordinary writing, while the 

latter can best be employed in the larger ourred movements* The 
need for harmonious cooperation of the two is at once apparent* 
9* The fluency,freedom, and smoothness of movement, which charac¬ 
terises the good writer generally, is the fundamental "rhythm" 
of handwriting* It Is due to the unhampered interaction and 
coordination of the fingers and arm as free swinging levers, 
and a ready control of the motor elements at every instant, so 
that there is a definite relation between the form being con¬ 
structed and the temporal fls§f§* - Although two movements 
may be given different duration, in absolute measure, the dif¬ 
ference is in regulated proportion. 

10* The following of an imposed rhythm, when successfully accom¬ 
plished Is effective in changing the speed and time distribution 
of the various strobes, from that which is ordinarily used* The 

writer tends to equalise the time spent of successive strobes. 

The rhythm is apt to result in the slowing down of the rate of 
writing for the rapid writer. When a strobe is made more 
slowly than is ordinarily done in regular penmanship, in the 
adaptation to the rhythmic beat, irregularity of speed distri¬ 
bution is apt to result, with evidences of incoordination. The 

thythm should be very oarefulyy adapted to individual require¬ 

ments, therefore, lest, in the speeding up of part of the group, 
with a consequent gain in facility, the remainder of the group 
have imposed upon them a handicap of slow speed which will in 
turn affect the form harmfully* as well as induce poor habits 


of economy 


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11* Various factors s&ich make for time economy arc: coordination, 
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words* The latter was found to be interfered with greatly 
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and x f s and dotting of i’s and J’s* Large writing is made more 
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159 


BECOMKE&DATIQES FOB THE TEACHING OF PEHMABSHI? WHIC T &BE 
STJTPOHTE3) BY TEE FINDINGS OF THIS INVESTIGATION* 

Bhythmio control of penmanship movement, through the use of the 
ffietroname, phonograph,etc*, should he employed judisiouely and 
carefully. There is danger of securing too great a unanimity of 
behavior in a group with consequent loss of originality* Each 
individual has his own natural "set 11 or adjustment for rhythm, and 
while it may he possible to habituate an individual in an artificial 
rhythm, it is cuestionable whether this could be attained without 
Interfering with deep-seated controls. If possible the rhythmic 
beat should be adapted to the particular individual needs* 

One who has already developed rhythmic habits cr abilities is not 
directly benefit ted by a rhythmic drill* In fact such an Individual 
is apt to be hindered by such drill unless it is at least as rapid 
as his natural rate, and simple enough to be followed readily* 
culte early in a child*s experience in constructing penmanship 
forms a rhythmic beat or oount should be used a© a guide in the 
recognition of the requisite unite of movement, or strokes* This 
exercise can be effectively used in constructing written word forms, 
as well as in simple repetitive forms, and may consist of a fairly 
regular emphasis on each stroke, later followed by similar quick** 
ened drill with the emphasis on the up-stroke only, as the child 
improves. This type of drill will aid in hurrying the movement 
within the stroke so that it will be written, not drawn, and will, 
if carried far enough, prevent the tendency later on to slur over 
the respective strokes* 

Those who have difficulty in taking on an imposed rhythm in this 
simple form should receive individual attention* Their deficiency 


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©ay be due to the fact that the heat ia too rapid or too slow, 
or the child ©ay not have the kin&esthetio basis for constructing 
or following a rhythm* 

fhis simple early rhythm or count may give way to more complex 
and rapid rhythmic drill as the child comes to the place where the 
forms are clearly in mind, and habits of stroke differentiation 
are well fixed. The drill should now emphasise speed, but 
care should be taken that quality does not suffer by too great 
an emphasis in this respect* A child should be excused from such 
drill when he has built up speed habits which no longer require the 
stimulus of the rhythm, or when the rhythm that must b© used for # 
the group tends to retard his movements lest he build up poor 
habits of organisation, and become habitually slow in movement* 

Most, if not all rhythmic drill, at this stage, should be In 
the following of a rhythmic stimulus while constructing simple, 
repetitive forms. It is not adaptive to the written word* The 
The same forms should be constructed in the same manner, in the 
same time, and with the same speed emphasis and distribution* 

The time should be gradually speeded up, as fast as the quality 
of penmanship will bear it, until,the beat is as rapid as oan be 
consciously followed* This type of drill should effect several 
changes* It should aid the child is facility* It should give 
to him fairly definite habits of temporal control, so that he 
will learn to construct similar strokes in approximately the same 
length of time and with similar constant form, hence with about 
the same maximum speed* 

Prill may be given in constructing similar forms of different 
sizes with the same time rhythm* These should not be mixed at 




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first, so that, for example, a large oral is follow! by a small 
oval, ana this again by a medium sized oval, until after facility 
lias been gained in writing a group of each size by itself, The 
emphasis must constantly be, not on slowing down the speed on 
the small form so as to equalize the time taken with that of the 
large form, but on quickening the speed on the large form so that 
it may be constructed in approximately the same length of time 
as the small. This control of extremely rapid speed in the 
larger curves is a marked characteristic of the good writers 
and should be encouraged by every means possible. 

It is doubtful indeed if rhythmic drill can be used very ex¬ 
tensively with the written word forms in building up proper habits 
of speed and rhythm as here suggested. The complexity of these 
forms, in most oases at least, defies any clear cut arrangement 
in rhythmic groups. Until this can be done with fair certainty 
It would be better to place the entire emphasis in rhythmic habit¬ 
uation on comparatively simple, repetitive exercises which involve 
all the elements found in prdirary writing, but in a rhythmically 
regulated succession* Simple word forms as "mem”, M mm% etc. 
may be effectively used as also may the repetition of a letter 
which readily receives the rhythmic beat. The object of such 
drill muct be, not habituation in putting the same amount of time 
on each stroke, but in attaining the utmost possible speed, eon- 
sis tent with quality, in the larger strokes, and constancy of 
speed end form in similar strokes* 

After the l^pdrner has attained good coordination ability and 
has learned to clearly differentiate the respective strokes, exer- 







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ais#s should bo given which will tend to decrease the amount of 
time given to rest at the end of strokes* The learner now needs 
to recognize the continuity in the whole line of writing rather 
than to consider it as a combination of separate strokes* To this 
end he must learn how to accomplish reversals of direction and 
to round the small curves smoothly and accurately, as well as 
rapidly* 

The pupil should receive regular drill in free control of 
all muscles naturally used in writing, especially the finger and 
arm muscles* There should be harmonious cooperation of all 
motor factors in the construction of the various stsed strokes 
and parts pf strokes called for in ordinary penmanship. The 
rigid emphasis on arm movement and the exclusion of the function¬ 
ing of the muscle groups of the fingers and wrist does not find 
justification in scientific evidence. It seems essential for 
the proper construction of the smaller movements that finger con¬ 
trol be built up instead of being eliminated and that the writer 
should enjoy a free controlled movement of all involved muscles, 
instead of being hampered by needled© inhibitions* The result 
will be a rhythmic flow of movement not to be attained by the 
selection of one set of muscles and the artificial elimination 
of the other* 

The writer should early acquire habits of direct passage 
between words. To this end he should be taught to place his 
forearm in position perpendicular to the line of writing at the 
middle of the page, and move the whole forearm steadily along 
the line of writing, moving on the muscle pad or elbow as a pivet, 
and making such adjustment in the wrist as may be necessary to 


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keep the written line straight. By this method the practice of 
lifting and shifting the arm will he avoided. The writer should 
also he trained to pass directly to the beginning of the next 
word, by avoiding all useless strokes and flourishing movements* 
All laws of method for the fixing of definite habits should 
he earnestly followed. &uoh poor penmanship, if not all, is 
„ due to the failure of the learner to acquire fixed habits of time 
distribution or organization. Possibly there ar© greet indi¬ 
vidual differenoes in the ability to take On such habits, but 
most oases will yielf to careful, patient and persistent treat¬ 
ment, especially if individual attention is received to any ade¬ 
quate degree, and no variations of drill ar© permitted as well 
as no wrong practise in the daily school work in other subjects. 

In view of the fact that little of the actual penmanship 
instruction given in schools gives adequate attention to individ¬ 
ual day-by-deyr needs in the way of habituation, but on the con¬ 
trary, permits the learners to constantly repeat their mistakes 
while straggling with new material, some effort should be made 
to effect a reorganization whioh will permit the diagnosis of 
the faults of individual pupils or the group and also effective 
drill in the particular fault or faults discovered. 

Since most of the faults of organisation, movement and habit¬ 
uation manifest themselves in the samples of writing it is clear 
that they might be discovered had one at hand the requisite indi¬ 
ces for such diagnoses* Suoh indices are suggested in the 
following section, but these need validation and further experi¬ 
ment in practical application. In this connection also the 


















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organization of instruction must be such as will provide the 
isost efficient treatment; probably some form of grouping during 
the period of drill, eo that all those with a cordon fault will 
bo seated in the same section and working with a definite objec¬ 
tive* 

DIAGNOSIS AS AH AID IH WSmsmU IStffiUOflQY. 

It is undoubtedly true that much time is watsed in penmanship 
instruction through the Qois,oxi method of merely teaching the sub¬ 
ject, instead of teaching the special functions of which the 
skill of handwriting is composed. 

In a typical classroom the pupils exhibit a variety of abil¬ 
ity in penmanship. Further than this some are very good, if not 
perfect, in one or more of the functions going to make the total 
of writing ability while persistently weak in other functions. 

Other pupils of the group are notably deficient in the former 
functions and good in others. The question naturally arises; 
why should the child be instructed fay after day in general pen¬ 
manship without recognizing and providing for the overcoming of 
individual faults? Undoubtedly many children drill for 

years in general exercises in penmanship, but because they have 
never criticized their own product adequately, or had their atten¬ 
tion called to their particular defect, they are constantly embed¬ 
ding themselves more deeply in the wrong habit. Penmanship instruc¬ 
tion, so-called, becomes for them an interference rather than an 
aid. 

By drill on special functions general interest should be in¬ 
creased and ability improved so that appreciable gain will he 


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made by the pupil in a comparatively short time. The teacher 
should find herself with a specific task of supervision rather 
than in charge of a matter of routine* 

The scheme of diagnosis here proposed rests on the theory 
that individual defects of form and movement as well can be 
discovered by a brief inspection of the written product, and 
recommendations for treatment made which will prove effective* 

An instructor may, then, look over the samples of the children*s 
writing outside of school hours and come to the penmanship class 
fully prepared to direct the class since she knows what are the 
particular faults of the class as a whole,and of individual®, 
which must be corrected. 

The specific functions which are essential to good penmanship 
may be listed as follows* Each will be described and illustrated 
with the expectation that the reader will learn to differentiate 
the faults common to these functions* Other faults might be noted 
such as unevenness of line, but these are probably by-products 
of those here noted*. 

1, speed of .iriting. Speed and cuality should progress together. 
The child should be trained as rapidly a® possible to accelerate 
his movement in so far as he can keep his form up to par* Ex¬ 
treme retardation in speed coupled with good penmanship is to 
be deplored as a continuous practice* On the other hand undue 
emphasis on speed, as in the following of a very rapid rhythmic 
count, oan result only in a neglect of requisite quality and 
consequently a poor product. The faster writer 1® often the 
better writer because his attention has been set free from the 
purely mechanical features of the process and oan concern it- 
















165 


self with the more Intimate aspects of the form as need arises. 

A real test of writing must therefore take both of these faotors 
into consideration and note their relation to the norm for the 
age or grade in order to make a helpful analysis. 

2. Quality. This is a general term, covering the general appear¬ 
ance of the written form, and while valuable in a general survey 
in terms of sooreg made on a standard penmanship eoale, can more 
properly be broken up into specific elements dependent on the 
particular functions of the learning prooess. One should con¬ 
sider consistency of quality in the daily work of the school as 
well as in the penmanship drill exercise or test. The emphasis 
on speed during a test ma t y serve to affeot the quality harmfully, 
but commonly one would expect to find the daily work of compara¬ 
tively inferior quality unless general ideals or habits have been 
acquired. 

3* Habituation in letter-form. Any defect of penmanship may 
affect the form of the letters involved,consequently it is diffi¬ 
cult to isolate this defect from others which are present. Defec¬ 
tive form attributable to poor imagery of the form of the letter 
can scarcely be distinguished by inspection of the writing alone 
from that due to motor inability to oonstruot the form as imaged. 
In view of diverse demands for form which obtain in the various 
systems of penmanship instruction there is also some disagreement 
as to what constitutes defective letter form. 

A distinction which is fairly clear, however, refers to habit¬ 
uation. (1) Does the pupil’s writing show that he has no clear 
idea of the definite form which certain letters should take? This 


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167 


oan discovered fcy noting whether or no the ohild generally 
uees a variety of forms for the same letter. For example,in 
Figure fcO(part U the child evidences no clear habituation. Ho 

IsrrzR-roRn 


No Fixed Habit 



in Point of Habituation. 


two f's agree as to form though there# are four in the sample, 
fhe same fact is true of the n a n and the "o" as well as the "r”. 

(2) £he second cuestion is: hoes the child's written product 
reveal the fact that he has formed a definitely wrong image of 
forip. In part 2 of Fig.20 is found an illustration of writing 
in which defective forms are consistently repeated so as to 
©ause on© to infer that the child is becoming habituated in 
wrong forms. 

What is needed in both oases evidently, is a positive empha¬ 
sis on the correct forms, chiefly through the method of percep¬ 
tion and imitation, until the correct Image is gotten. It is 
difficult to undo the effect of long continued wrong practise, 
and it is perhaps equally as difficult to get a clear image be¬ 
fore some learners who seem to lack any kind of permanent visual 
or kinaesthetic imagery. It is ruite common to find those who 





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166 


show a mak&ed defect of each type with different letters* calling 
for very specific drill* If a child is able to fix a definite 
correct image of any of the letter© it is evident that it will 
be possible with the right kind of training for him to fix the 
oorreot image of all of them* 

4* Slant. Shis is an important element, but is not wholly simple 
since several different errors of slant are common. Qm of these 
is (1) a generally wrong slant,habituated throughout* lust what 
may constitute such a wrong slant is disputable, There is goner* 
&1 agreement that the medium forward slant is best probably for 
both legibility and movement* but whether a vertical or slightly 
backhand slant will be called defective depends on local empha¬ 
sis. Extreme slants, either forward or backward, such as thebe 
shown in Figure El (part I}* are doubtless types of defect which 
which should be remedied if possible* 

A second error is lB\ where the mixed slant is used (shown in 
part II of Fig* El) in which no single slant prevails. The indi¬ 
vidual letters, tall or short, are made with different slants* 
This defect occurs in all degrees and is readily recognisable* 

The third defect under this head is (5) where the I earner 
gradually passes fro® good slant to extreme forward slant as 
progresses ehhng a certain section of the line. Sometimes this 
section is comparatively short (^ w to 1"), and in other cases 
it Is the length of the written line. This type of defect can 
be readily differentiated from the first in the fact that there 
is present a certain degree of good slant at periodic intervals. 
It can also be distinguished from the second in the fact that 
the slants are not mixed within the words unless by a gradual 



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Slant 



91g. El* 8atopies of Handwriting Showing Defects of Slant* 
change. 

fhe first type of defeot may he due to the position of the 
writer, or the way in which the ana of hand is held, or the way 
the pen is grasped or the way the paper is plaoed. Or it may he 
due to the fact that the learner has never imaged the best type 
of slant, or realised that his writing was in error at this point. 
The second defeot is usually due to an awkwardness of adjustment 
or a defective image and is usually coupled with incoordination. 
The third is due entirely to the method of progress of the hand 
along the line, and a failure to make proper arm and wrist adjust¬ 
ments in passage. In this case as a rule the arm is pivoted at 
the elbow and, being held rigid without flexion of the wrist, the 





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penpoint tends to describe an aro causing a different slant to 
be Blade with the same movement at successive positions in the 
line. Or the forearm may be held rigid with the hand, flexing 
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of slant will he necessarily made within a short distanoe. The 
correction will be effected by a proper movement of the arm 
sideways on the muscle pad as a pivot and an adjustment of the 
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to the line at every point. 

In Fig. El (part IV) a very desirable slant is shown. 

5. Coordination. This is one of the most important of the 
characteristics of good penmanship. Incoordination is of 
two types. In Fig. EE (part I) the drawing type is shown,here 
called "wavering”. In this case there is a hesitating progress 

showing uncertainty of movement. A child may exhibit very good 
Coordination 



letter form yet manifest this type of movement. Incoordination 
of this type is usually coupled with slow movement, though it 
may obtain the case of very nervous ohildren to such an ex¬ 
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not characterise the whole product consistently it should never 
appear in writing beyond the primary stage, fhe remedy is the 
aoruleition of ruickness of movement whioh will moke irregularity 
due to hesitation impossible. 

The other type of incoordination, the one moat commonly met 
with in the elementary school above the 4th Srade at least, is 
shown in part II of the above Figure. This is an angular type. 
Instead of rounding the curves in# a smooth are the writer pro¬ 
gresses in his line of writing ruite irregularly by short straight 
lines and angles. This fault is due to the lack of proper coop¬ 
eration of the finger,wrist and arm muscles used In writing. The 
fault usually does result in poor letter fora, though not neces¬ 
sarily so. The chief remedial work needed is practice in 
rounding curves rapidly mid smoothly with the proper adjustment 
of muscles. a sample of writing showing good coordination 

is given in part III. 

6. Kotor Control* Laok of control of the muscles used, so that 
the maximum speed within a stroke is not properly placed at or 
near the middle of the stroke is evidenced in various ways as 
shown in Figure 23. If the movement gains too large a speed 
the stroke will be carried past its recuisite length. As a re¬ 
sult the alignment is thrown out of place, letters are misshaped, 
and the writing is apt to be enlarged, in whole or in part. In 
part I these results are evident. Also ruite often a curve is 
rounded at too great a speed with the result that it is carried 
too far as in the first stroke of the w n H ,etc. 

In part II is shown the restrained type in whioh not enough 
speed is placed on the stroke to carry it far enough. Sharp ter- 


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minagions to strokes, as the up-strokes on the M n" are common; 
the wri ting is here,as in Part 1,thrown out of alinement and 
the whole appearance of the writing is oreaped, This defeot is 
usually ooupled with inooordination t and mar he the prime factor 
in poor letter form. 

Oases freruently occur where the lack of control is of the 
mixed type shown in part in, in which some stroke© evidence 
loose movement and others a marked restmaint. 

The drill needed to remedy this defective control of motor 
elements is & careful attention to the construction of repeti¬ 
tive lines of a particular height or the writing of the "push 
and pull" exercise, or running ovals. The following of a rhyth¬ 
mic heat will aid in securing the proper speed and rhythmic con¬ 
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certain length and form with a certain habitual degree and dis¬ 
tribution of speed emphasis* This will always evidence itself, 
when present, by a flowing,regular movement giving the impression 
of control at every stage* 

7* Unit Character of the Stroke* Failure to recognise the strode 
value is very common, and is evidenced by a sliding over of the 
important stroke elements* In the sample here given,Figure £4 
(part 1), the downstrokes especially do not receive their full 
emphasis, and are united with the stroke Just preceding or 
following so as to not clearly define the separate strokes* 


Unit Stroke 



Fig* £4* Samples of Handwriting Showing the Value 
of Emphasis on Individual Strokes. 

In part II the sample has the suooessive strokes in the word 

"fourscore" numbered in order* The cpmparison of this with 

Part I reveals clearly the defect of the former, stroke by 

stroke* 

The remedy for this defect lies chiefly in calling the at¬ 
tention of the learner to thgi fault with adetuat© emphasis. 

An aid to gaining better form at this point is found in a count 
on the alternate or up-etrokes as the words are formed. Much 
of this fault is due to the attempt to speed up the writing. 






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174 


aad a consequent feeling that following the regular pathway of 
the stroke is a waste of time when one gains time by "cutting 
across the corners** Much of the illegibility in writing 

is due to this factor* 

8* Spacing of words and letters* Spaaing may be mad© consis¬ 
tently too narrow with a ©onseruent illegibility, though the 
letter form, slant, ete«, may be of the best* A case of this 
kind is seen in the artificial sample.Part II of Figure £5* 
Habitual wide spacing of letters and words is noticeable in 
Part III* This is to be regretted as much for its waste of 
spaoe in writing and of time in reading as far anything* Although 
Spacing of Words rnd Letters 

‘"jActt allsmim, 

_jJ , /J/J 

■Jrmall/mnaA&miti' 



Figure 28. Samples of Bandwriting Showing a Comparison of 
Good Spacing with Types of Poor Spacing* 


oases are found frequently in which only one or the other of 
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175 


prevalent. Here there Is no el ear Idea or habit of spacing 
either of words or letters. 

Practise on the construction of simple repetitive forms, 
with equal and well proportioned spacing, emphatic leadership 
and imitation, and car© in the daily work should result in 
improvement in most oases, though some seem to have no means 
of forming an adequate concept of the spatial relatione involved. 

9. Passage Between words. Almost no attention is commonly 
given to the way in which the learner effects a passage from 
one word to the next. It is very important however, both in 
point of quality and economy of time. It has been shown 
(p* 139 ff.) that a large fraction of the time taken in wri¬ 
ting a passage may be consumed in this way. In Fig. 26 

Part 1 an illustration of a poor passage between words is 

r k 

P/155/1 G£ B£TV££N WORDS 



Fig. 26. Samples of Handwriting Showing a Comparison 
of Indirect and Direct Passage between Sords. 

given. ?he pathway of the penpoint is shown by means of dotted 

lines. In the sample here shown there 1© an evident flourish 

and unfortunate types of final and beginning strokes which usual* 

ly accompany this fault. Another phase of this defect is when 

the writer lifts his arm abruptly and shifts it to a new position 






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but this too usually is evidenced in the product by the form 
q£ the final and initial strokes. The crossing and dotting 

of letters Introdiice unfortunate regressive movements at the 
end of many words wh ioh tend to augment the tendency to waste* 
ful movement* Part II illustrates how direct passage may 

he effected In such a way as to secure economy as well as good 
closing find initial strokes* The child should not get the 
habit of shifting his arm, or making aimless or flourishing 
movements at this point* Practice in writing groups of 
words continuously without lifting the pen from the paper will 
be effective in introducing the idea of such direct passage to 
the child, sad giving him some skill in executing it. The 
type of arm movement recommended for correction of slant lp.170) 
will prevent the shifting of the arm between words as noted 
On pp* 143*4* 


PXs&B OP A FBBXXMIHABY ETFEKIHMT III B1AGH0SI3 
AS AH AID TO PBHMKSHIP IlSfEHOTIOl* 

In the spring of 1922 cooperation of several teachers of 
the Fifth Grade in Kansas City, Kansas was secured through 
Ifr. B.h.Wise, Director of Tests and Measurements* Four teachers 
tested the children of their rooms in Penmanship, getting samples 
of writing according to the demands of the Ayres Scale*(Gettys* 
burg Edition)* These samples were sent to the writer who 
scored all of them both in speed and quality as graded by the 
Ayres scale. With these samples were also sent samples of 
the daily school work..writing in other subjects. These also 
were scored as to quality* Two of these classes were chosen 





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177 


©xper imeatai work mu : two for control gmp* All the 
«**© then analyzed In detail far evidences af all the 
ahaipe noted defects* Be©ommesdation© were then made to the 

teachers of the uxporincut al rooas regarding the particular 
mode of the pupil© of the pupils individually aM se a whole* 
2h* ehlldren were then grouped by the teacher© for penmanship 
drill according to these recoir* enactions. After a month had 
passed another test was Bade by the teachers in the experiment 
tal rooms and the papers were sent as before sad graded and 
analysed* aid on the basis of these papers further recomisen- 
d at ions were made. lust before the close of school a final 
test was made of all the rooms* both in the experimental and 
the control groups*, and these were scored. 

the tSGChere in the experimental rooms were provided 
with large charts of the samples found in the figure® £0*26 
above and were given an indication of the types of exercise 
suitable for the treatment of the defects found, 5he chil¬ 
dren studied the chart© with a view to learning what defect® 
they were t? avoid* and according to the teacher® found the 
charts very helpful. ffee regular penmanship lesson© of 
the city school© were followed* 

the result© were not conclusive* partly because of the 
few classes involved and curtly because the final test was 
given so near the close of school that it was spoiled by 
the haste and confusion of the occasion and few really rep¬ 
resentative paper© were gotten fro® any of the groups* fhe 
plan was found feasible however and will be ©gain applied 
to a larger group* under better controlled condition© and 










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178 


with greater freedom in the modi float ion of the course of 
study. 

The records of the pupils were kept in a tabulation as 
follows. 


Pupil 

H.B. 

C .B* 


II 


I 

;17S! 

IcHOfT 

£b;25 65 


III IV 

ITiZTTnziWraT'z :; _ 

: 04 -::o:~:o:-::*Ts - 

:o:*::o:*:-:;o:-::*:: * 


VI VII VIII XX 

npm^E 

•:*:-5: w z 


The sign (o) indicated no marked defect, (~) indicated a 
notable but not comparatively serious defect end the sign 
{*) a defect whioh demanded immediate attention# The key 


to the columns is 

I..Quality of Penmanship..score in the Ayres Scale 
C1J In the Penmanship Test 
{£) In the daily work 

II..Bate of writing in letters per minute. 

III..Habituation in letter-form 
(1) $o fixed image 
{£) Definitely wrong image. 

IV., Slant 

(1) Wrong extreme slant. 

{£) Mixed slant 

(3) Change of slant with progress in line. 

V..Inccordinstion 

(1) Wavering # unete ady line 
(2} Angular line 

VI..lack of motor control of speed distribution 

VII..lack of recognition of the Unit Stroke. 

VIII..Spacing wrong 

(1) Between words 
{Z) Between letters 
XX..Indirect Passage between words. 

Experiments are also being made to discover the accuracy with 

which a teacher may diagnosdi the pupil 1 ® work and the degree 


of variation in teadhers judgments as 


compared with each other 


as well as their own previous judgments. 




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APPI1TDIX 

tabulations of Data which 

ABB BEPKKBBD TO IN TKS WW 
Of THE DISCUSSIOH BUT WHICH 
ABE HOT ESSENTIAL IN THE 

intehphetatiob. 



















































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Sable 1 

Sample of Original tabulation of itecords for a Subject 


Subject_ £a _flager Movement Retro.Bea t SO Wo* 16 


Stroke 


SK>mR300S 





IMPOSED 


Yar. 

So* 

Best 

Stroke 

total 

Beet 

Stroke 

total 

from 


fi Ye 

*1 Ya 

n 

Ye 

fi 

Ya 

fi 

Ye 

fi 

Ya 

Ret. 

1 * 

28 1.6 

20 .6 

48 

1.2 

57 

3.3 

18 

2. 

66 

1.3 

25 

2. 

24 2.2 

23 2.4 

47 

.2 

30 

3.7 

26 

5 

56 

1.3 

20 

3. 

24 2.2 

23 2.4 

47 

•2 

31 

2.7 

21 

11 

62 

1.7 

15 

4. 

22 4.2 

21 .4 

43 

3.8 

42 

8.3 

17 

3 

69 

6.3 

12 

5. 

27 .8 

16 2.6 

46 

1.8 

33 

.7 

20 

- 

53 

.7 

3 

6. 

27 .6 

18 2.6 

46 

1.6 

31 

2*7 

22 

2 

63 

.7 

1 

7. 

32 6.8 

18 2*6 

56 

3.2 

30 

3.7 

21 

1 

51 

2.7 

- 3 

8. 

26 1.2 

18 216 

43 

3.8 

40 

6.3 

17 

3 

57 

3.3 

- 5 

9. 

32 6.6 

18 2.6 

60 

3.2 

27 

6.7 

24 

4 

51 

2.7 

-14 

10. 

29 2.8 

19 1.6 

48 

1.2 

39 

6.3 

20 

* 

59 

5.3 

-16 

11. 

23 3.2 

22 1.4 

46 

1.8 

26 

7.7 

16 

4 

42 11.7 

-28 

12. 

26 1.2 

24 3.4 

49 

2.2 

39 

6.3 

18 

2 

57 

3.3 

-25 

13. 

24 2.2 

24 3.4 

48 

1.2 

30 

3.7 

22 

2 

52 

1.7 

20 

14. 

28 1.8 

23 2.4 

61 

4.2 

39 

5.3 

20 

• 

59 

5.3 

15 

16. 

23 3.2 

20 .6 

43 

3.8 

31 

2.7 

19 

1 

50 

3.7 

10 

total 

393 39.2 309 29.6 

702 33.6 606 

68.1 300 30 

806 60.7 

212 

bean 

26.2 2.6 20.6 2. 

46.6 2.2 

33.7 4.6 

20 

2 

63.7 3.4 

14.1 

Vsr. 

10 

9.6 


4.8 


13.6 


10 


6.3 

26.3 


Per Cent of time at He8t«»«*Spontseieoue 393 divided by 702 st 66^ 

Imposed 605 " " 606 tt 62.8$ 













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Sable 2 

IJULIMIHaRT STO2T OP THIS COHSMICY OP AH 

ntmmu'8 hecobd asBoraH »o tarns. 

Part a. . otnal Arerage Moar.uros of Duration (In nllllaeteraJ 

Sub. trial SPC8XAXS0US IMPOSED RHTSBM 

FIHGBB ABU FIHSKB ,.BH 

--Bast atrojeot, Beat Stro tot. Beat Stro Set. Beat Stro tot. ... 

V/. 1. 16 20.6 36.6 9.9 26.3 36.2 17.9 33.6 41.6 16.1 27.S 42.9 

2. 16.8 82.8 40.6 14.6 26.3 39.8 18.9 83.2 48.1 16.3 26.4 41.7 

_,12 .E ..8S t g_3jU_18.4 33.4 41.8 1 6.2 27.1 42.3 

P. 1. 19.9 36.8 66.6 14.3 32.6 46.9 19.8 22.2 42. 14.6 27.4 42 

2. .21*6 5L>9 £9*1 £2._ SLt.3 £7*5 15a 85.1 Mst Mai &sl 

_Ay.t-.ZOjLlJ^lJ. 7 ^4.-A8.I_34. . 62 < 2- 24 t .. . 4 2. , . 16.2 86.8 ,.4g t _ 

C. 1. 18.6 17.3 30.8 11.8 20 31.8 24.7 17.6 48.2 17. 86. 42 

2. ILtfi ISai £ 2 m 2 18. 14.6 27.6 21.8 20.2 42. 22.9 17.4 42.3 

/•*. 12.6 14.6 87.3 12.1 17.3 29. 3 23.2 18.8 42.1 19.9 21.2 42.1 

F. 1. 18.2 22.3 40.6 14.1 26.4 39.5 18.6 22.7 41.3 16.4 26. 41.4 

2. 16. 16 30. 10.9 21.5 32.6 22. 20.1 42.1 13.7 28.8 42. , 

«T. 16.6 18.6 36.8 12.6 23.4 36. 20.3 21.4 41.7 14.6 27.1 41.7 


Part B. Per Cent of Sloe 2pent at Best. 

Spontaneous Imposed Shythrn 


Subj.s 

Trial# Finger 

arm 

Finger 

Arm 

-~x 

i. 

f 42 

27.3 

43.1 

36.1 


2. 


36,3 


37.3 

_ L 

AT. 

_j 

43,6 

31.8 

44.2 

36.7 

it 

i. ' 

• 36. 

30.2 

47.6 

34.3 


z. 

2£*5 

55*5. 

38.2 

37.2 

_! 

AY, j 


34.3 

42.9 

35.9 

0. * 

1. 

' 43.7 

56 

38 

40.6 


&. 

M±S. 

47.3 

51.8 



AY, 

46.9 

51.6 

54.9 

47.3 

"* Pa 

1. 

45, 

35.8 

45.3 

37.2 


a. 


55*2 

53.1 

32.7 


*7* 

47.5 

34.7 

48.7 

34.9 













4 




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V 


iii 


Table 3 

Summary of the Average Measure? of Duration (in mm.) 
for all Subjects under the Various Conditions of Spon¬ 
taneous and Imposed Rhythm, with Finger and Arm Movement. 

A*...ADULTS — Spontaneous 


Group l...Good Writers 


Subj. 

REST 

STROKE 

TOTAL 

HO. 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm* 

1. 

16.6 

13.3 

31.3 

35.8 

38. 

38. 

3. 

11. 

9.3 

19.1 

30^8 

30.1 

30. 

3. 

33.7 

13.3 

34.7 

38.7 

48.4 

41.8 

4. 

9.6 

6.9 

31.7 

17.8 

31.3 

34.7 

5. 

19.7 

30.4 

33.8 

30,5 

54, 

50.9 

0* 

30.7 

9.3 

13.8 

19,8 

34.6 

39.1 

7. 

16.8 

10.3 

13.7 

19.3 

39.5 

39,5 

8 . 

32.9 

10.3 

16.3 

34.1 

39.1 

34.3 

9. 

10.9 

15.9 

35. 

30.3 

35.9 

46.3 

10. 

14.3 

13.3 

16.5 

18. 

30.8 

31.3 

11. 

35.5 

31.1 

13.2 

16.7 

37.7 

37.8 

13. 

14. 

13.6 

17.7 

31.1 

31.7 

33.7 

Total 

363.7 

154.4 

335.8 

373. 

440.1 437.4 

Ave. 

17. 

13.9 

19.7 

33.7 

36.7 

35,6 

Group i 

a...Poor Writers 




1. 

13.3 

9.6 

30.8 

34.3 

34. 

33.9 

3. 

15.4 

13.6 

18.1 

31.3 

33,5 

34,9 

3. 

19.5 

14.3 

11.6 

15.9 

31.1 

30.1 

4. 

13.5 

11.3 

17.3 

30. 

30.8 

31. 

5. 

15.3 

17. 

18.9 

31.9 

34.1 

38.9 

6 * 

36.3 

31.5 

30.6 

33.4 

46 ,8 

44.9 

7. 

13.5 

8.3 

31.7 

34.3 

34.1 

33.5 

8. 

8.3 

6.9 

15.8 

13.1 

34. 

30. 

9. 

17.5 

8.3 

19.9 

14.3 

37,4 

33.5 

10. 

10.9 

13.9 

15.7 

35.4 

36,6 

39.4 

11. 

16.4 

14.9 

30.3 

39.4 

36.7 

44,4 

13. 

34.9 

16.3 

16.5 

19.6 

51.4 

35.9 

Total 

303.4 

158.7 

317.1 

353.8 

430.5 408.4 

Ave. 

16.9 

13. 

18.1 

31.1 

35. 

34. 

Comb. 






34.8 

Aver. 

16.9 

13*9 

18.9 

31.9 

35.8 

M.Dev. 

4.73 

3.35 

3.44 

L 3.93 

5,4? 

5.85 

P.E.Mn 

. .816 .578 

.593 .073 

,94 

1,0009 



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Table 3 (cant*) 

B.,..ADULTS — Imposed Rhythm 

Group 1* 

Subj. BEST STROKE TOTAL 


Bo. 

Flng« 

. Arm 

Ping* 

. Arm 

Ping, 

> Arm, 

1. 

18.6 

15.4 

23.5 

26.6 

42.1 

42. 

2. 

23.9 

19.5 

18. 

23.6 

41.9 

42.1 

3. 

21.4 

18. 

20.7 

24.7 

42.1 

42.7 

4. 

18.4 

18.9 

19.4 

23. 

37.8 

41.9 

5. 

17.9 

15.8 

24.1 

26.2 

42 

42. 

6. 

30.3 

14.4 

12.1 

27.6 

42.4 

42« 

7. 

21.1 

16.7 

20.5 

25.2 

41.6 

41.9 

8. 

30.3 

20.9 

10.9 

21.3 

41.2 

42.2 

9. 

20.4 

16.5 

21.7 

25.9 

42.1 

42.4 

10. 

28.2 

20.6 

13.8 

21.4 

42. 

42. 

11. 

32.9 

27.4 

9. 

14.5 

41.9 

41.9 

12. 

20.8 

15.1 

21.2 

26.7 

42. 

41,8 

Total 

284.2 

218.2 

214.9 

286.7 

499.1 

504.9 

Ave. 

23.7 

18.2 

17.9 

23.9 

41.6 

42.1 

Group 

2. 






1. 

24.7 

15.6 

17.4 

23.9 

42.1 

39.5 

2. 

29.5 

25.2 

12.5 

19. 

42. 

44.2 

3. 

27. 

22.3 

14.7 

19 

41.7 

41.3 

4. 

24.9 

17 

17.5 

25. 

42.4 

42. 

5. 

16.8 

21.3 

22.8 

20.5 

39.6 

41.8 

6. 

28.3 

22.3 

16 f 8 

15.7 

45.1 

38. 

7. 

23.7 

21.6 

17.7 

20.4 

41.4 

4£. 

8. 

24.3 

11.7 

16.2 

23.9 

40.5 

35.6 

9. 

25.5 

14.7 

15.8 

26.3 

41.3 

41. 

10. 

28.1 

18.1 

14.1 

23.7 

42.2 

41.8 

11. 

14.1 

17.5 

28. 

24.7 

42.1 

42.1 

12. 

29.2 

24.1 

11.8 

17.3 

41. 

41.4 

Total 

296.1 

231.4 

205.3 

259.4 

501.4 

490.8 

aT6. 

24.7 

19.3 

17.1 

21.6 

41.8 

40.9 

Combined 
Average*24.2 

18.7 

17.5 

22.8 

41.7 

41.5 


Kn.Lev. 4.07 3.1 3.75 2.96 .754 1.04 

P.E.Mn. .708 .535 .647 *5106 .13 .179 






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Table 3 (eont.) 

C. *»• CHILDBEH --Spontaneous 


Group 

1. Younger Children 




SubJ. 

BEST 

STROBE 

TOTAL 

Ho. 

Plug* 


Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

• Arm 

1. 

EE. 2 

£H .8 

27.5 

32.7 

49.7 

55.5 

E. 

£6.8 

20.7 

38.4 

21.7 

64.2 

42.4 

3. 

30 

19.3 

18.4 

21.8 

48.4 

41.2 

4. 

18.4 

18.5 

12.2 

19.5 

30.6 

38.1 

6* 

17.1 

16.8 

15. % 

17.5 

32.2 

34.3 

6. 

15.3 

12.6 

17.4 

17.4 

32.7 

30. 

7. 

16.8 

1B.9 

22.3 

26.3 

39.1 

39.2 

8. 

31.4 

19.7 

18.8 

24.8 

51.2 

44.5 

9. 

19.2 

28.5 

15.6 

23.4 

34.8 

53.9 

10. 

£6.1 

18.1 

16.6 

23.5 

42.7 

41.6 

11. 

16.6 

12.5 

18.6 

23.4 

35.2 

36. 

IE. 

£3.8 

14.9 

14.3 

22.9 

38.1 

37.8 

Total 

E6E.7 

£17.3 

236.2 

274.9 

498.9 

494.5 

j»T®. 

£1.9 

18.1 

19.7 

22.9 

41.6 

41.2 

Group 

2. Older Children 




1. 

29.9 

18.3 

22.7 

35.7 

52.6 

53.9 

£. 

11.1 

7.1 

17.6 

19.6 

28.7 

26.7 

3. 

19. 

17. 

18.4 

19.6 

33.7 

36.7 

4. 

20*2 

16* 

15.6 

25.2 

35.8 

41.2 

5. 

16.1 

18.7 

23.3 

25.2 

39.4 

43.9 

6. 

14.3 

12.4 

27.2 

27.5 

41.5 

39.9 

7. 

17.8 

13.5 

25.9 

28.1 

43.7 

41.6 

8. 

9.3 

10.2 

18.7 

14* 

27.9 

24.2 

9. 

IE *6 

16.7 

22.4 

22.4 

35. 

39.1 

10. 

18.4 

17.3 

19.5 

18.8 

36.6 

36.2 

11. 

11.5 

13.2 

19*3 

19.5 

30.8 

32.7 

IE. 

1£*6 

13.9 

17.6 

21. 

30.2 

35. 

Total 

192.8 

174.3 

248.2 

276.6 

435.9 

451.1 

Ave. 

16.1 

14.5 

20.7 

23. 

36.3 

37.6 

Combined 






Aver* 19. 

16.3 

20.2 

23. 

39. 

39.4 


Mn.Pev. 4*81 3*36 3*86 3*69 6*93 5*51 

P.f.Mn. *83 .58 .666 .619 1*195 *9505 

























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Vi. 


Table 3 (oont.) 


D... OEIXDHEJI —- Imposed Rhythm 


Group 

Sub 

1. 

REST 

STROKE 

TOTAL 

Ho. 

Fing. 

Arm 

Ring. 

Arm 

Fiug. 

Arm 

1. 

33.7 

22.2 

7. 

19.9 

40.7 

42.1 

2. 

30.9 

22.1 

13.6 

22.1 

44.5 

44.2 

3. 

26.8 

19.9 

14.2 

23. 

41. 

42.9 

4. 

26.3 

26.2 

8.5 

14.6 

34.8 

40.8 

5. 

31.£ 

16.6 

10.4 

£0.9 

41.6 

37 f 5 

6. 

22.1 

14.1 

16. 

25. 

38.1 

39.1 

7. 

28.6 

83.4 

15.4 

21.2 

43.9 

44.6 

8. 

30.4 

20.7 

12.1 

21.8 

42.5 

42.5 

9. 

30.7 

£0.4 

12.5 

21. 

43.2 

41.4 

10. 

28. 

21.1 

14.9 

22.3 

42.9 

43.4 

11. 

20.3 

14.5 

21.4 

26.9 

41.7 

41.4 

12. 

26.4 

23.5 

11.1 

18.6 

37.5 

42.1 

Total 

336.3 

244.7 

157.1 

257.3 

493.4 

502. 

Ave. 

27.9 

£0.4 

13.1 

21.4 

41. 

41.6 

Group 

1. 

2. 

24.9 

19.8 

17.8 

20.9 

42.7 

40.7 

2. 

27.6 

16.5 

14.3 

25.1 

41.9 

41.6 

3. 

25.8 

18.8 

17.1 

17.4 

42.9 

36.2 

4. 

£1.3 

22.3 

15.7 

16.9 

37. 

39.2 

5. 

26.6 

20.5 

16.2 

21. 

41.8 

41.5 

6. 

22.7 

15.8 

18.8 

25.8 

41.5 

41.6 

7. 

22.6 

12. 

19.9 

30.3 

42.5 

42.3 

8. 

21.3 

16.5 

19.7 

25. 

41. 

41.5 

9. 

22.5 

19.7 

19.5 

23.3 

42. 

43. 

10. 

30.8 

22.9 

11.9 

19.2 

42.7 

42.1 

11. 

30.9 

22.3 

12.1 

20.9 

43. 

43.2 

12. 

20. 

26.1 

21.7 

15.4 

41.7 

41.5 

Total 

296 

233.2 

204.7 261.2 

500.7 

494.4 

Are. 

24.7 

19.4 

17.1 

21.8 

41.7 

41.2 

Comb. 

Aver, 

, 26.3 

19.9 

15.1 

21.6 

41.4 

41.5 


Hn.JDev. 3.35 8.86 3.19 8.75 1.62 1.325 

FiE.Mn. .578 .493 .56 .474 .279 .229 




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Tii 


fable 4 

INDIVIDUAL RSOOBUS OF BESULfS FOB BJCFSBIUSmTION OF FABT II. 
a... aWLTS — Spontaneous Movement, 


(Sroup 1. 

Percentage of Variation 


Subj. 

Bi33f 

SfBQFB 

TOTAL 

$ Beet. 

Ho. 

Fing. 

Arm. 

Fing, 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

1. 

7.3 

16. 

6.2 

13.9 

£.4 

5.6 

43.6 

44.3 

2. 

19.4 

16.7 

11.6 

4.6 

9.6 

6.2 

36.6 

31. 

3. 

10.4 

13.2 

6.9 

5.6 

4.7 

3.6 

47.8 

31.6 

4. 

17.8 

31.9 

12.3 

8.2 

8.4 

11. 

30.6 

26. 

6 . 

14.6 

15.6 

8.6 

9. 

4.4 

4. 

37.3 

40. 

6. 

14. 

27. 

13.1 

6.7 

5.9 

6. 

59.7 

31.6 

7. 

8.8 

11.6 

8.6 

6.5 

4.4 

8.5 

53.5 

34.6 

8 . 

11.1 

13.9 

11.5 

6.2 

8.9 

3.8 

58.6 

29.7 

9. 

21.4 

30.6 

13.9 

8.1 

12.2 

7.6 

30.4 

34.4 

10. 

17.6 

14.2 

11.4 

10.3 

2.6 

6.6 

42 

46.4 

11. 

9.6 

9.9 

16.3 

13.4 

8.5 

8.7 

67.7 

55.7 

12. 

12.4 

19.7 

6.4 

12.6 

6.4 

5.3 

44.1 

37.4 

fot. 

164.3 218.1 

126.8 104. 

81.3 

77.1 

551.9 

444.7 

a we. 

13.7 

16.2 

10.5 

8.7 

6.8 

6.4 

46. 

37.1 

Group 2. 

1. 8.9 

17.2 

6.1 

4.6 

2.9 

4.9 

36.6 

28.3 

2. 

7.6 

17.8 

8.9 

6.6 

5.3 

10 c 2 

45.9 

38.9 

3. 

10.4 

9.4 

19.6 

17.6 

4.8 

7.1 

62.7 

47. 

4. 

16.1 

11.3 

8. 

7.2 

5.4 

5.6 

46. 

51.6 

5. 

20.6 

4.7 

8.6 

6.2 

10.? 

4.6 

44.6 

43.7 

6 . 

10. 

11.3 

9.6 

13.4 

4.8 

10.4 

56. 

47.9 

7. 

20.6 

21. 

8.3 

5 

11. 

5.4 

36.5 

25.4 

8. 

24.4 

19.8 

11.1 

7.9 

8.6 

5. 

34. 

34.4 

9. 

10.1 

23. 

10. 

6.8 

6.6 

7.2 

46.8 

36.9 

10. 

26.2 

6.6 

9.3 

5.5 

5.4 

5. 

41.1 

35.3 

11. 

18.4 

16.7 

12.6 

8.4 

4.5 

8.2 

44.8 

33.6 

12. 

11.8 

6.8 

20. 

6.4 

5.7 

3.9 

67.9 

45.5 

fot. 

186 

163.6 

131.9 

95.5 

75.2 

77.5 

565.1 

468.5 

av©. 

16.4 

13.6 

11. 

7.9 

6.3 

6.5 

47.1 

39. 

Comb. 

Aver. 

14.6 

16.9 

10.7 

8.3 

6.5 

6.4 

46.5 

38. 

Ma.Dev 4.74 

5.38 

2.86 

2.67 

2.1 

1.75 

8.47 

6.78 

.818 .928 

.492 .46 

.362 .302 

1.45 

1.17 






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B... «AIXJLfS —Imposed Ihythm. 


Group 1 

SubJ. 

»* 

Percentage of Variation 

RSST StBCKB fQf&L 

% Best 

$ Dev. froi 
Dhe Beat 

Ho. 

Ping. 

. Am 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

» atb. 

1, 

21.2 

17.4 

6.7 

6.5 

6.5 

4.5 

31.6 

36.7 

22.6 

11.4 

Z . 

21.7 

10.3 

5.6 

6.2 

12.7 

6.2 

57. 

43.8 

7.7 

4.2 

3* 

10.3 

12.3 

5.5 

5.2 

5. 

4.8 

50.9 

41.8 

6.9 

16.2 

4. 

11.9 

30. 

10.3 

7.9 

6.6 

13.4 

49. 

45.2 

19.5 

3<£.9 

5. 

10.9 

10.8 

7.3 

6.9 

6.1 

6.1 

42.3 

38.1 

19.3 

10. 

6. 

11.4 

9.8 

14.7 

5.6 

10.4 

6.3 

71.4 

34.5 

5.9 

15.6 

7. 

30. 

9.7 

9. 

5.8 

14.2 

4.9 

50.7 

49.8 

7.4 

5.4 

6. 

15.5 

25.6 

20.2 • 

21.6 

9.1 

4.9 

72.3 

49.4 

6. 

10.1 

9* 

16.7 

29.6 

14.3 

12.5 

4.7 

5.4 

46.2 

39. 

20.6 

34.6 

10. 

e.e 

8.6 

5.6 

9.2 

4.7 

6. 

50.6 

67.4 

7.2 

15.6 

11. 

7.6 

22. 

20.8 

11.2 

6.6 

12.2 

76.7 

65.3 

7.3 

6.8 

13. 

15.7 

15.7 

10. 

16.2 

9.2 

11.1 

49.6 

36 

93.2 

7.3 

fot. 

171.7 

202. 

130 

116.6 

95.3 

85.8 

652.7 

547. 

142.5 170. 

*ve. 

14.3 

16.8 

10.8 

9.7 

8. 

7.1 

54.4 

45.6 

11.9 

14.2 

Group 2. 

1. 

12.4 

37.5 

5. 

12.7 

9.1 

10. 

58.5 

39.4 

9. 

6. 

2. 

15.4 

17.5 

10.2 

21.4 

9. 

8.7 

69.3 

57. 

10. 

23. 

3. 

16.5 

12.4 

20.4 

11.4 

7.2 

7.6 

65. 

53.6 

- 

- 

4. 

39. 

23.6 

16.7 

12.4 

24.4 

9.5 

54.9 

47.3 

30.5 

37.5 

5. 

17. 

11.9 

10.2 

6.1 

8.4 

7.2 

42.4 

48.8 

34.5 

36.5 

6. 

13.5 

16. 

10. 

10 e 6 

6.3 

6.7 

6 2.8 

58.7 

26.3 

36.2 

7. 

7.6 

17.6 

12.1 

10. 

6.7 

6.7 

87.8 

51.4 

- 

- 

e. 

12.1 

19. 

14.1 

14.2 

5. 

14.4 

60.9 

32.8 

31.4 

46.3 

9. 

12.4 

24.6 

12.7 

10.3 

6.2 

7.9 

61.7 

35.6 

6.8 

17.7 

10. 

5.6 

8. 

9.7 

6.4 

3 

4.6 

66.7 

43.7 

2. 

13.6 

11. 

39.2 

7.4 

17.8 

6,9 

5.2 

4.3 

33.4 

41.6 

4.2 

6. 

12. 

11.8 

12.1 

17.6 

10.7 

10. 

4.9 

70.9 

67.6 

9.2 

24.5 

fot. 

192.7 207.6 

156.4 132.1 

100.5 

93.5 

704.3 617.5 

162.9 

246.3 

AV0. 

16.1 

17.3 

13. 

11. 

8.4 

7.8 

58.7 

43.1 

16.3 

24.6 

Comb. 

^ve.. 

15.2 

17. 

11.9 

10.3 

6.2 

7.4 

56.5 

44.3 

13.9 

18.9 

li a.Dev. 
P.H. Ita. 

4.7 4.55 

.814 .78 

4.17 

.71 

3.41 

.666 

2.9 

.5 

2.2 

.36 

8.39 

1.62 

7.94 

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Table 4 (oont) 


0...Children — Spontaneous Movement 


Group 1. 

SubJ. 

BEST 

Percentage of 
SIBOKB 

Variation 

TOTAL 

% Best 

AGE 

Ho* 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

> Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Fing. 

Arm 

Yra. Mo 

X. 

28.1 

24.3 

36.9 

16.2 

24.3 

6.9 

44.6 

44.1 

4 -10 

2. 

22. 

32.1 

27.9 

19.8 

17.6 

13.3 

42.4 

48.9 

6 -11 

3. 

17.5 

10.3 

27.8 

9.8 

14.5 

5.6 

62.1 

46.9 

7-9 

4. 

17 

15.3 

17.8 

13.8 

7.7 

6*5 

60.1 

49.7 

8-2 

6. 

14.7 

14 

19.1 

10.5 

10.9 

9.1 

63.2 

49 

8 -10 

6. 

23.8 

13.6 

26.3 

17.6 

13.8 

15.3 

46.8 

42.1 

9-2 

7. 

26. 

34.4 

19.6 

10.4 

16.7 

11.8 

42.9 

33. 

9-6 

8. 

16.5 

21.8 

17.1 

12.4 

8.6 

8.8 

61.5 

44.3 

9-9 

9. 

28.2 

26.1 

30.7 

30. 

15. 

7.9 

60.6 

63.6 

10-4 

10. 

22.3 

14.7 

16.8 

11.8 

16.9 

3.6 

61.1 

43.6 

10-7 

11. 

10.6 

19.1 

6.9 

7.8 

4.3 

6.1 

47.6 

34.8 

10-8 

12. 

40,7 

16.1 

43.6 

13.2 

14. 

7.4 

62.4 

39.3 

10 -10 

Total 

• • 

d 

CM 

239.8 

289.3 

173.3 

164.4 106.3 

645.1 J 

528.3 

107 - 4 

-ave. 

21.8 

20. 

24.1 

14.4 

13.7 

8.8 

63.8 

44.2 

a -ii 

Grfcup Z. 

1. 

11.7 

6.9 

8.9 

10.4 

6.2 

7.1 

66.8 

33.9 

11-1 

2. 

20.6 

31.7 

12.7 

9.3 

13.6 

9.7 

48.6 

26.7 

11 -11 

3. 

19.9 

17.6 

24.2 

ll.fi 

21.3 

9.8 

60.8 

46.5 

12-6 

4. 

12.3 

7. 

13.9 

7.8 

4.7 

6.6 

66.3 

38.9 

13 -10 

8. 

11.8 

16. 

11.4 

12.2 

8.1 

9.9 

40.9 

42.6 

14 - 3 

6. 

10.1 

16.2 

6.4 

8.4 

4.9 

8. 

34.6 

31.1 

15 - 

7. 

19. 

20.4 

118.2 

9.9 

14.9 

4.3 

40.8 

32.6 

15 -10 

8. 

16.5 

ll.fi 

9. 

6.7 

7.8 

7.2 

33.2 

42.1 

16 - 

9. 

23.9 

16.2 

16. 

11.3 

8.4 

9.1 

36. 

42.7 

16-3 

10. 

10.1 

8.2 

16.6 

10. 

9.1 

5.9 

48.6 

47.9 

16-9 

11. 

22.3 

20.8 

11.2 

10.1 

7.5 

9.4 

37.4 

40.3 

17 - 

12. 

17.9 

18.4 

6.4 

6.3 

10.1 

7.8 

41.6 

39.8 

17-3 

Total 

195.9 189.9 

166.9 

113.9 

172.4 

94.8 

516.6 466. 

177 - 2 

AT©. 

16,5 

15.8 

13. 

9.4 

14.4 

7.9 

43 

38.7 

14-9 

Comb. 

J\VQ . 

19. 

17.9 

18.6 

11.9 

14. 

8.3 

48.4 

41.4 

11 -11 

Mn.Dev. 

6.25 

6.6 

7.32 

2.93 

4.71 

1.98 

6.46 

5.3 


P.S.Mn. 

.906 1. 

1.262 .506 

.813 

.342 

1.46 

.914 








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f 


Sable 4 * coni.} 


D.. • .CHILDB&1 — Imposed Bhythm. 


Group l. 

Subj. 

Percentago of Deviation 

B83T STHQ^ TOTAL 

$ Beat 

% Dev. 
Xrpm..Bea$.. 

Ho. 

Ping. 

Arm 

Ping. 

Arm 

Ping. 

Arm 

Ping. Arm 

Ping 4 

. Arm 

1. 

27.2 

16.9 

28.8 

22.6 

20.9 

15.5 

82.7 51.6 

23.6 

37.5 

2. 

17.1 

39.8 

17.1 

25.1 

10.2 

14.1 

69.2 54.3 

31.6 

21.2 

3, 

14.7 

13.8 

16.3 

1$.6 

10.2 

11.2 

65.6 46.5 

16.9 

11.8 

4. 

12. 

13.9 

16 

15.9 

10.2 

6.6 

72.7 64.2 

87.9 

21.7 

6. 

32. 

14.9 

24.3 

11.6 

18.8 

12.3 

76.3 44.3 

10.4 

34.9 

6. 

14.1 

21.9 

13.9 

24.3 

9.6 

20.2 

61. 35.8 

31.4 

27.1 

7. 

16.2 

19.2 

12.7 

12.6 

8.6 

7.6 

64.9 52.4 

29.2 

31.9 

8. 

14.9 

32.8 

2c *5 

9.8 

9.1 

17.4 

71.4 51.2 

17.3 

27.9 

9. 

22.9 

24.6 

46.7 

31.2 

15.7 

10.6 

73.9 49.3 

12.2 

8.7 

10. 

21 

32. 

16.9 

12.9 

9.7 

12.8 

65.3 48.8 

22.6 

17.2 

11. 

1Z.8 

27.4 

17.3 

17.6 

7.4 

8. 

70.3 56.7 

26.9 

21.4 

11 

17.6 

19.6 

14. 

10.6 

11. 

9.1 

48.7 34.9 

17.1 

14.4 

Total 

223.6 

274.9 

246. 

206.9 

141.2 147.3 

821. 668.9 

277.5 

275.7 

Ave* 

18.6 

22.9 

20.5 

17.2 

11.8 

12.3 

68.4 49.7 

23.1 

22.9 

Group 2. 

1. 

26. 

20.3 

17.8 

14.6 

12.9 

15.8 

58.3 36.7 

15.5 

18.3 

2. 

19.5 

30.3 

13.8 

24.3 

12.4 

5.2 

66. 39.7 

15.8 

7.3 

3. 

14. 

29.9 

20. 

17.3 

8.6 

22.9 

60.1 52.2 

10.9 

34.2 

4. 

9.4 

9.6 

14.7 

12. 

6.2 

8.6 

57.8 66.2 

29.5 

28. 

5. 

16.9 

2618 

9.2 

20.2 

8.6 

7.8 

60.7 49.1 

15.9 

20.4 

6. 

14.5 

11.2 

16.8 

7.9 

3.7 

5.1 

65. 38. 

7.6 

6.2 

7. 

12.3 

24.1 

10.4 

a. 

7.8 

7.8 

63.1 27.9 

10.5 

41. 

6. 

8.6 

19.6 

9.2 

10.8 

7.8 

7.3 

51.8 39.8 

7.2 

6.6 

9. 

23.6 

10.2 

17.2 

10.3 

10.2 

8.9 

63.5 45.8 

9.3 

9.4 

10. 

13. 

29.9 

26.5 

16.9 

5.2 

9.1 

72.1 54.4 

4.7 

10.4 

n. 

13.5 

23.9 

16.9 

15.4 

9.6 

10.3 

71.8 61.7 

10.2 

9.4 

12. 

14.4 

25.2 

11.5 

20.6 

9.9 

8.2 

47.9 62.4 

7.6 

9.9 

Total 

185.7 

261 

186.1 

178.3 

105.1 

116.5 

706.1 565.9 

144.7 

205.5 

Ave. 

15.8 

21.7 

15.5 

14.9 

8.6 

9.7 

66.5 47.2 

12.6 

17.1 

Comb. 

Ave. 

17.2 

22.3 

16. 

16. 

10.3 

11. 

62.4 48.4 

17.8 

20. 

Mn.Dev. 

P.K.Mn. 

4.58 

.78 

6.91 

1.192 

5.14 

.89 

4.97 

.857 

2.53 3.6 
.436 .62 

7.86 6.67 

1.36 1.15 













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CQRRRRATIGH OF AGB OF CHIRDBM TO THR PRR CMT 
OF TEA TOTAL STROM PM 101) SPMT AT HAST* 

(Pearson Method fcy Grades) 


SPG1ITAE&GU3 
Finger liovesidadb. 

„ EALi'l RAM. 

Jt + ♦ 


BSPOSBD RHYTHM 


Finger 

BALA 


Arm 

BAM 


Best* 

Ass 

• Dev. 

Best 

JsSi 

Dev. 

Best* 

.Age 

Dev* 

Rest.Age Dev. 

1 

20 

19 

1 

14 

13 

1 

24 

23 

1 

21 

20 

2 

18 

16 

2 

18 

16 

2 

11 

9 

2 

10 

8 

3 

21 

18 

3 

19 

16 

3 

20 

17 

3 

6 

3 

4 

23 

19 

4 

7 

3 

4 

19 

15 

4 

19 

15 

5* 

It 

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6 

IS 

8 

5 

21 

16 

5 

14 

9 

6. 

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11 

6 

11 

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18 

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6 

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12 

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7 

16 

9 

7 

16 

9 

7 

5 


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21 

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8 

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8 

13 

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8 

17 

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24 

15 

9 

15 

6 

9 

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1 


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23 

12# 

10 

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8 

10 

13 

3 

11. 

6 


20# 

6 


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6 


11 

11 


12* 

11 


12 

20 

6 

12 

7 


12 

20 

8 

13. 

22 

9 

12 

17 

4 

13 

10 


13 

9 


14. 

14 


14 

21 

7 

14 

3 


14 

7 


IS. 

15 


15 

10 


15 

14 


15 

2 


16. 

5 


16 

1 


16 

2 


16 

23 

7 

17. 

16 


17 

8 


17 

12 


17 

16 


18. 

15 


18 

15 


18 

8 


18 

8 


19. 

4 


19 

3 


19 

25 

4 

19 

1 


20. 

9 


20 

22 

2 

20 

22 

2 

£0 

22 

2 

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10 


21 

4 


21 

4 


21 

12 


22. 

8 


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23. 

3 


23 

5 


23 

6 


23 

24 

1 

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12 


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Table 6 

COBBELAf XOJf AUO&G ADULT BKCOBDS OF 
TEE DEE CHET OF THE TOTAL PERIOD SPKHT 
at BEST aHB THE FEE CENT VARIATION IE 
TIME KPEffT AT BEST. 

SPONTANEOUS RHYTHM 


Finger Movement Arm Movement. 

bade bank 


Sub j. 

Tar. 

Best 

f 

Subj. 


jr 

f 

No. 

4 

4 

Be-?. 

Ho. 

Yar. 

Best 

Dev 

1. 

1 

10 

9 

1 

12 

18 

6 

2. 

19 

5 


2 

14 

5 


3. 

8 

17 

9 

3 

9 

6 


4. 

17 

2 


4 

24 

2 


5. 

14 

6 


5 

13 

16 

3 

6. 

13 

21 

8 

6 

22 

7 


7. 

3 

18 

15 

7 

8 

11 

3 

8. 

10 

20 

10 

8 

10 

4 


9. 

£2 

1 


9 

23 

9 


10. 

16 

9 


10 

11 

21 

10 

11. 

5 

23 

18 

11 

5 

24 

19 

12. 

12 

11 


12 

18 

14 


13. 

4 

7 

3 

13 

16 

3 


14 

2 

14 

12 

14 

17 

15 


IS. 

9 

22 

13 

15 

4 

20 

16 

16. 

15 

15 


16 

7 

23 

16 

17. 

20 

12 


17 

1 

17 

16 

18. 

6 

19 

13 

18 

6 

22 

16 

19. 

21 

4 


19 

20 

1 


20. 

23 

3 


20 

19 

10 


21. 

29 

16 

9 

21 

21 

13 


22. 

24 

8 


22 

3 

12 

9 

23. 

18 

13 


23 

15 

8 


24. 

11 

24 

13 

24 

2 

19 

17 


Total 

”132 


Total. 131 


B . . * ** • 

378 


%< 

»• * *». 

365 


r.. 



r, 

1 * • •. 

573 ± 




591 *. 

085 





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. ■ ■ 

. 


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Kill. 


Table 6 (oont) 

IMRQSEI) RHYTHM. 



Finger Movement 

Arm Movement 



RiiHK 



HiiHK 


Subj. 

% 

% 


Sub J* 

s 

$ 

+ 

BO. 

Var. 

Best Dev. 

Ho. 

Star 

• Best 

D< 

X. 

21 

1 


1 

14 

5 


2. 

EE 

IE 


E 

6 

IE 

6 

3. 

5 

10 

5 

3 

10 

10 


4. 

9 

6 


4 

23 

13 


5. 

6 

3 


5 

7 

6 


6. 

7 

22 

15 

6 

5 

2 


7. 

EO 

8 


7 

4 

16 

12 

8. 

15 

23 

8 

8 

21 

16 


9* 

18 

5 


9 

22 

7 


10. 

4 

9 

5 

10 

3 

24 

21 

11. 

E 

24 

EE 

11 

18 

23 

5 

IE. 

16 

7 


IE 

IE 

4 


13. 

11 

14 

3 

13 

24 

8 


14. 

14 

EO 

6 

14 

15 

21 

6 

15. 

17 

18 

1 

15 

11 

19 

8 

16 

24 

11 


16 

19 

14 


17. 

19 

14 


17 

18 

17 


18. 

13 

17 

4 

18 

13 

EE 

9 

19. 

3 

13 

10 

19 

16 

18 

2 

EO. 

10 

15 

5 

20 

17 

1 


21. 

IE 

16 

4 

El 

El 

3 


EE. 

1 

19 

18 

EE 

E 

11 

9 

23. 

23 

E 


£3 

1 

9 

8 

24. 

8 

El 

13 

24 

9 

El 

12 


Total 



Total 95 


H. 


-.242 


R... 

-.023 



r.... 

-.402 U15 


r... 

-.041 









% 









> 



V' • ■* 







31 • 


v- V 




















- ■• 




* JLJ 




> A • -,v 


"■ 




* 

Xi 

■* ‘ 



~ 







.'• r 


'•* >' * 


* i.> 


.x- 


•* . .. 


. <; u 








APPROVED 


Date 




























































A 




anw 

L/ .S' 


A 




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